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এৰিষ্ট'টল: বিভিন্ন সংশোধনসমূহৰ মাজৰ পাৰ্থক্য

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102 নং শাৰী:
{{details|Non-Aristotelian logic}}
 
এৰিষ্ট'টলে পোনপ্ৰথমে যুক্তি সম্পৰ্কীয় চিন্তা চৰ্চা কৰা বুলি জনা যায়৷ তেওঁৰ ধাৰণাসমূহ উনৈশ শতিকা পৰ্যন্ত পশ্চিমীয়া দেশসমূহত প্ৰভূতভাৱে প্ৰচলিত আছিল৷<ref>Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.</ref>
With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in [[mathematical logic]].<ref>Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.</ref> [[Kant]] stated in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of [[deductive inference]].
 
====History====
115 নং শাৰী:
 
===Geology===
Asছাৰ্লছ quoted fromল্যেল [[w:(Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell's]]) ৰ ''[[Principles of Geology]] ''নামৰ গ্ৰন্থখনত উল্লেখ কৰা অনুসৰি''-'':
<blockquote><p>He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the [[Palus Maeotis]] within sixty years from his own time&nbsp;... He alludes&nbsp;... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.</p><p>He says [12th chapter of his ''Meteorics''] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'<ref>[[wikiquote:Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell]], ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mmIOAAAAQAAJ& Principles of Geology]'', 1832, p.17</ref></p></blockquote>
 
178 নং শাৰী:
====Classification of living things====
Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of [[hemoglobin]], but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of [[Linnaeus]], who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).<ref>Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Vol. 1 pp. 348</ref>
 
====Successor: Theophrastus====
[[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Book frontispiece|frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC.]]
{{Main|Theophrastus|Historia Plantarum}}
Aristotle's successor at the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], [[Theophrastus]], wrote a series of books on botany—the ''History of Plants''—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the [[Middle Ages]]. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel.
 
Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the [[efficient cause]]. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90–91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 46</ref>
 
====Influence on Hellenistic medicine====
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==Legacy==
[[File:Aristotle with a Bust of Homer.jpg|thumb|Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by [[Rembrandt]]]]
Moreএৰিষ্ট'টলৰ thanমৃত্যুৰ 2300২৩০০ yearsবছৰৰ afterপিছতো hisতেওঁ death,বৰ্তমানলৈকে Aristotle remainsবিশ্বৰ oneআটাইতকৈ ofপ্ৰভাৱশালী theব্যক্তিসকলৰ mostএজন influentialবুলি peopleপৰিগণিত whoহৈ everআছে৷ lived.মানুহৰ Heজ্ঞানৰ contributedপ্ৰতিখন toক্ষেত্ৰলৈকে almostতেওঁ everyঅৰিহণা fieldআগবঢ়াই ofগৈছে৷ human knowledgeতাৰ thenলগতে inনতুন existence,নতুন andক্ষেত্ৰৌ heতেওঁ wasউদ্ভাৱন theকৰি founderগৈছে৷ of manyদাৰ্শনিক new'Bryan fields.Magee'ৰ Accordingমতে toতেওঁৰ theসমপৰ্য্যায়ৰ philosopherজ্ঞান [[Bryanকোনো Magee]],অন্য কোনো ব্যক্তিৰে থাকিব নে নাথাকে সেয়ে সন্দেহজনক ("it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".)<ref>{{cite book |last= Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page= 34}}</ref> Amongঅসংখ্য countlessকৃতিত্ব otherসমূহৰ achievements,ভিতৰত Aristotleঅন্যতম wasহৈছে theএৰিষ্ট'টলৰ founder ofযুক্তি ([[formal logic]],) উদ্ভাৱন<ref>W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter]''". [[Cambridge University Press]]. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4</ref> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], andপ্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান leftআৰু everyবৈজ্ঞানিক futureপদ্ধতিৰ scientistপ্ৰতি andঅতুলনীয় philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.অৱদান৷<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92}}</ref>
 
Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. [[Bertrand Russell]] notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<ref name="philosophy1972"/>
 
===Later Greek philosophers===
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