প্ৰযুক্তি: বিভিন্ন সংশোধনসমূহৰ মাজৰ পাৰ্থক্য

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'''প্ৰযুক্তি''' হৈছে কোনো সমস্যা সমাধানৰ বাবে নাইবা কোনো কামত লগাবৰ বাবে [[সঁজুলি]], কৌশল, শিল্প, প্ৰণালী বা সজোৱাৰ পদ্ধতিৰ সৃষ্টি কৰা, ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা আৰু জ্ঞান লাভ কৰা | প্ৰযুক্তি শব্দটো গ্ৰীক τεχνολογία|τεχνολογία (technología) (মূল τέχνη অৰ্থাত্‍ téchnē) শব্দৰ পৰা আহিছে যাৰ অৰ্থ হ’ল কলা, দক্ষতা বা শিল্প <ref name="mwdict">{{cite web | url=http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/technology | title=Definition of technology | accessdate=2007-02-16 | publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]}}</ref> | শব্দটো সাধাৰণভাৱে নাইবা কোনো বিশেষ ক্ষেত্ৰত যেনে- "''নিৰ্মান প্ৰযুক্তি''", "''স্বাস্থ্য প্ৰযুক্তি''", "''তথ্য প্ৰযুক্তি''" আদিত প্ৰয়োগ কৰিব পাৰি |

 

প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে মানুহৰ অৱস্থা উন্নত কৰেনে অনুন্নত কৰে আৰু ইয়াৰ ভৱিষ্যত সম্পৰ্কে দাৰ্শনিক তৰ্ক-বিতৰ্ক বহুকালৰে পৰা চলি আহিছে | [[নব্য-লুডিবাদ]](Neo-Luddism), | [[নৈৰাজ্য-আদিবাদ]](anarcho-primitivism) আৰু তেনে বিপ্লৱবোৰে আধুনিক জগতত প্ৰযুক্তিৰ বহুল প্ৰসাৰে পৰিবেশ আৰু মানৱতা বিনষ্ট কৰা বুলি সমালোচনা কৰি আহিছে | আনহাতে [[প্ৰযুক্তি-প্ৰগতিবাদ]]ৰ দৰে ধাৰণাই প্ৰযুক্তিক সমাজ আৰু মানুহৰ অৱস্থাৰ উন্নতিৰ বাবে লাভদায়ক বুলি যুক্তি দৰ্শায় | কিছুবছৰৰ আগলৈকে প্ৰযুক্তিৰ বিকাশ কেৱল মানুহৰ মাজত সীমাবদ্ধ বুলি ভবা হৈছিল, কিন্তু শেহতীয়া বৈজ্ঞানিক তথ্যৰ পৰা জানিব পৰা গৈছে যে আন [[প্ৰাইমেট]] আৰু কোনো কোনো [[ডলফিন]] প্ৰজাতিয়ে সাধাৰণ সঁজুলিৰ জ্ঞান বিকাশ কৰি সেয়া পিছৰ প্ৰজন্মলৈ পঠিয়াবলৈ শিকিছে |

 

The use of the term ''technology'' has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts.<ref name="Crabb">For ex., [[George Crabb (writer)|George Crabb]], [http://www.archive.org/stream/universaltechno01crabgoog#page/n525 ''Universal Technological Dictionary, or Familiar Explanation of the Terms Used in All Arts and Sciences, Containing Definitions Drawn From the Original Writers''], (London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1823), s.v. "technology."</ref> The term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).<ref name="Stratton">Julius Adams Stratton and Loretta H. Mannix, Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 190-92. ISBN

0262195240.</ref> "Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the [[second industrial revolution]]. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with [[Thorstein Veblen]], translated ideas from the German concept of [[:de:Technik|Technik]] into "technology." In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between ''Technik'' and ''Technologie'' that is absent in English, as both terms are usually translated as "technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.<ref name="Schatzberg">Eric Schatzberg, [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v047/47.3schatzberg.html "''Technik'' Comes to America: Changing Meanings of ''Technology'' Before 1930,"] ''Technology and Culture'' 47 (July 2006): 486-512.</ref> In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them."<ref name="Bain">Read Bain, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2084365 "Technology and State Government,"] American Sociological Review 2 (December 1937): 860.</ref> Bain's definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this definition.<ref name="MacKenzie">Donald A. MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, "Introductory Essay" in ''The Social Shaping of Technology'', 2nd ed. (Buckingham, England : Open University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-335-19913-5.</ref> More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on [[technologies of the self]] ("techniques de soi").

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The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. [[Science]] is the [[reasoned]] investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements of the [[phenomenal]] world by employing [[Formality|formal]] techniques such as the [[scientific method]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/science | title=Science | accessdate=2007-02-17 | publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]}}</ref> Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as [[utility]], [[usability]] and [[safety]].

 

=== Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC) ===

 

 

The use of tools by [[Homo (genus)|early humans]] was partly a process of discovery, partly of evolution. Early humans evolved from a [[Australopithecus afarensis|species]] of [[foraging]] [[hominids]] which were already [[bipedal]],<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml|title=Mother of man – 3.2 million years ago |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> with a brain mass approximately one third that of modern humans.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=212317|title=Human Evolution|publisher=[[History (TV channel)|History channel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080423204038/http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=212317 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-04-23}}</ref> Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history, but approximately 50,000 years ago, a [[behavioral modernity|complex set of behaviors]] and tool use emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern [[language]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9503E0DF173CF936A25754C0A9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=1|title= Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2003-07-15|author=Wade, Nicholas}}</ref>

==== Stone tools ====

 

 

 

Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' approximately 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm | title=Human Ancestors Hall: Homo sapiens | accessdate=2007-12-08 | publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] }}</ref> The earliest methods of [[stone tool]] making, known as the [[Oldowan]] "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/336555.stm | title=Ancient 'tool factory' uncovered | accessdate=2007-02-18 | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=1999-05-06}}</ref> with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in [[Ethiopia]] within the [[Great Rift Valley]], dating back to 2.5 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids | last=Heinzelin | first=Jean de | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | month=April | year=1999 | volume=284 | issue=5414 | pages=625–629 | doi= 10.1126/science.284.5414.625 | pmid=10213682 | last2=Clark | first2=JD | last3=White | first3=T | last4=Hart | first4=W | last5=Renne | first5=P | last6=Woldegabriel | first6=G | last7=Beyene | first7=Y | last8=Vrba | first8=E}}</ref> This era of stone tool use is called the ''[[Paleolithic]]'', or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of [[agriculture]] approximately 12,000 years ago.

=== Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD) ===

 

 

Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the [[Neolithic]] period ("New stone age"). The invention of polished [[stone axe]]s was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms. The discovery of [[agriculture]] allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and the transition to a [[sedentism|sedentist]] lifestyle increased the number of children that could be simultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to be carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm|title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period|publisher=[[Science Daily]]|date=2006-01-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|accessdate=2008-05-17|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|author=Sussman, Robert W. |coauthors= Hall, Roberta L.|volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|month=April|year=1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977}}</ref>

 

==== Energy and Transport ====

 

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailboat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dodge|first=Darrell|title=Part 1 - Early History Through 1875|url=http://www.telosnet.com/wind/early.html|work=Illustrated History of Wind Power Development|accessdate=23 June 2010}}</ref> The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BC.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dollinger|first=André|title=Ships and Boats|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/navigation.htm|work=Pharaonic Egypt|accessdate=23 June 2010}}</ref> From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required another invention.

The second half of the 20th century brought a host of new innovations. In [[physics]], the discovery of [[nuclear fission]] has led to both [[nuclear weapons]] and [[nuclear power]]. [[Computers]] were also invented and later [[miniaturization|miniaturized]] utilizing [[transistor]]s and [[integrated circuit]]s. These advancements subsequently led to the creation of the [[Internet]]. Humans have also been able to [[space exploration|explore space]] with [[satellite]]s (later used for [[telecommunication]]) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innovations such as [[Cardiac surgery|open-heart surgery]] and later [[stem cell treatments|stem cell therapy]] along with new [[pharmaceutical drug|medications]] and treatments. Complex [[manufacturing]] and [[construction]] techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and entire [[industry|industries]] have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education — their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been created to support them, including [[engineering]], [[medicine]], and [[computer science]], and other fields have been made more complex, such as [[construction]], [[transportation]] and [[architecture]].

 

Generally, [[technicism]] is a reliance or confidence in technology as a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme, technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future using technology. Some, such as [[Stephen V. Monsma]],<ref name="Monsma 1986">{{cite book| last = Monsma | first = Stephen V.| publisher = W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co|location= [[Grand Rapids, Michigan|Grand Rapids]]| title = Responsible Technology | year= 1986| isbn = 0802801757 }}</ref> connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority.

 

{{See also|Extropianism}}

Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as [[transhumanism]] and [[singularitarianism]], which view [[technological evolution|technological development]] as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of [[scientism]] and [[techno-utopianism]] and fear the notion of [[human enhancement]] and [[technological singularity]] which they support. Some have described [[Karl Marx]] as a techno-optimist.<ref name="Hughes 2002">{{cite journal| author = Hughes, James| title = Democratic Transhumanism 2.0| year= 2002 | url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/DemocraticTranshumanism.htm| accessdate=2007-01-26}}</ref>

 

{{See also|Luddite|Neo-luddism|Anarcho-primitivism|Bioconservatism}}

On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like [[Herbert Marcuse]] and [[John Zerzan]], who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.

Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is ''[[s:Industrial Society and Its Future|Industrial Society and Its Future]]'', written by [[Theodore Kaczynski]] (aka The [[Unabomber]]) and printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campaign of the techno-industrial infrastructure.

 

{{See also|Technocriticism|Technorealism}}

The notion of [[appropriate technology]], however, was developed in the 20th century (e.g., see the work of [[Jacques Ellul]]) to describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to some centralized [[infrastructure]] or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The [[eco-village]] movement emerged in part due to this concern.

 

 

In 1983 a classified program was initiated in the [[US intelligence community]] to reverse the US declining economic and military competitiveness. The program, [[Project Socrates]], used all source intelligence to review competitiveness worldwide for all forms of competition to determine the source of the US decline. What Project Socrates determined was that technology exploitation is the foundation of all [[competitive advantage]] and that the source of the US declining competitiveness was the fact that decision-making through the US both in the private and public sectors had switched from decision making that was based on technology exploitation (i.e., technology-based planning) to decision making that was based on money exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the end of World War II.

Project Socrates developed the means for automated innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Innovation Revolution in order to rebuild and maintain the country's economic competitiveness for many generations.<ref>{{cite news | first = Gene | last = Koprowski | title = Tech Intelligence Revival? Commerce May Model on DIA's Project Socrates | date = 1991-03-07 | work = Washington Technology | accessdate = 2006-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Esther | last = Smith | title = DoD Unveils Competitive Tool: Project Socrates Offers Valuable Analysis | date = 1988-05-05 | work = Washington Technology | accessdate = 2011-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Stanley | last = Holmes | title = Technology boosts U.S. on battlefield, Stuart expert says | date = 1991-01-19 | work = The Stuart News | accessdate = 2011-04-25}}</ref>

 

The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans. These include primates such as [[chimpanzee]]s, some [[dolphin]] communities,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html | title=Chimpanzee Tool Use | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann; Leakey, Richard |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060921062716/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm | title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum. | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Rincon, Paul | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=2005-06-07}}</ref> and [[crow]]s.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21135366/|title=Crows use tools to find food|publisher=[[MSNBC]]|date=2007-10-04|author=Schmid, Randolph E.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Rutz, C.; Bluff, L.A.; Weir, A.A.S.; Kacelnik, A.|title=Video cameras on wild birds|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=2007-10-04}}</ref> Considering a more generic perspective of technology as ethology of active environmental conditioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their honeycombs.

 

{{Clear}}

 

 

{{main|Emerging technologies}}

[[Theories of technology]] often attempt to predict the future of technology based on the [[high technology]] and science of the time.

 

{{Main|Outline of technology}}

 

{{Portal|Technology}}

 

{{Main|Theories of technology}}

 

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{{div col}}

* [[Technocracy (bureaucratic)]]

{{div col end}}

 

{{Clear}}

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

 

* {{Cite journal |authorlink=Michael Kremer |last=Kremer |first=Michael |year=1993 |title=Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990 |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=681–716 |doi=10.2307/2118405 |url=http://jstor.org/stable/2118405 |publisher=The MIT Press |postscript=<!--None--> }}.

* [[Frank Popper]] (2007) ''From Technological to Virtual Art'', Leonardo Books, [[MIT Press]]

* [[Charlie Gere]] (2005) ''Art, Time and Technology: Histories of the Disappearing Body'', Berg

* {{cite journal | author=Ambrose, Stanley H. | title=Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution | publisher=''Science'' | date=2001-03-02 | url=http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~junwang4/langev/localcopy/pdf/ambrose01science.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate=2007-03-10}}

 

{{sisterlinks|Technology}}

* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/5170618/Technology-for-kids W5H of Technology] Technology for Kids

* [http://www.argentina.ar/sw_seccion.php?id=124&idioma_sel=en Science and Technology in the Southern world]

* [http://www.redherring.com/ RedHerring.com ~ The Business of Technology]

 

{{Technology}}

 

 

[[af:Tegnologie]]

[[ia:Technologia]]

[[id:Teknologi]]

[[io:Teknologio]]

[[is:Tækni]]