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মানৱ আৰু আন জীৱ-জন্তুক চৌপাশৰ পৰিবেশক নিয়ন্ত্ৰণ কৰিবলৈ বা খাপ খুৱাই লোৱাত প্ৰভূত সহায় কৰে | প্ৰাকৃতিক সম্পদক সাধাৰণ সঁজুলিলৈ ৰূপান্তৰ কৰি লোৱাৰে পৰা মানৱ প্ৰজাতিয়ে প্ৰযুক্তিৰ ব্যৱহাৰ আৰম্ভ কৰে | জুই নিয়ন্ত্ৰণৰ ক্ষমতাৰ [[প্ৰাক্-ঐতিহাসিক]] আৱিষ্কাৰে মানুহক খাদ্যৰ উত্স বঢ়োৱাত সহায় কৰিলে; আৰু [[চকা]]ৰ উদ্ভাৱনে যাত্ৰা কৰাত আৰু চৌপাশৰ পৰিবেশৰ জ্ঞান আয়ত্ব কৰাত সহায় কৰিলে | শেহতীয়া প্ৰযুক্তিগত উন্নয়ন যেনে- [[চপাশাল]], [[টেলিফোন]] আৰু [[ইণ্টাৰনেট]]এ [[যোগাযোগ]]ৰ বাধা আঁতৰ কৰিছে আৰু গোলকীয় মাপত আদান-প্ৰদানৰ সুযোগ দিছে | কিন্তু সকলো প্ৰযুক্তিয়েই শান্তিৰ কামত ব্যৱহৃত হোৱা নাই | ধ্বংসাত্মক [[অস্ত্ৰ]]ৰ উদ্ভাৱন আৰু ব্যৱহাৰ সহায়েই চলি আহিছে, লাগিলে সি সাধাৰণ [[মুদ্গৰ]]ৰেই হওক বা [[পাৰমাণৱিক অস্ত্ৰ]]ই হওক |
প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে [[সমাজ]]ক নানাধৰণেৰে প্ৰভাৱিত কৰিছে | বহুতো সমাজে প্ৰযুক্তিৰ সহায়ত উচ্চতৰ [[অৰ্থনীতি]] গঢ়ি তুলিছে (আজিকালিৰ [[গোলকীয় অৰ্থনীতি]]কে ধৰি) আৰু [[সামাজিক শ্ৰেণী]]ক অৱকাশৰ সুযোগ দিছে | [[পৃথিৱী]] আৰু ইয়াৰ [[প্ৰাকৃতিক পৰিবেশ]] বিনষ্ট কৰা [[প্ৰদূষণ]] আৰু হ্ৰাসিত [[প্ৰাকৃতিক সম্পদ]]ৰ সমস্যাও প্ৰযুক্তিৰে দান | নতুন প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে সমাজৰ মূল্যবোধক প্ৰভাৱিত কৰাৰ উপৰিও ন-ন নৈতিক প্ৰশ্নৰ জন্ম দিয়ে | উদাহৰণস্বৰূপে মানৱ উত্পাদনশীলতাত [[দক্ষতা]]ৰ বৰ্ধমান ধাৰণা যিটো আগতে কেৱল মেচিনৰযন্ত্ৰৰ বাবেহে প্ৰয়োগ কৰা হৈছিল আৰু আন আন পৰম্পৰাগত ৰীতিৰ প্ৰত্যাহ্বান |
প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে মানুহৰ অৱস্থা উন্নত কৰেনে অনুন্নত কৰে আৰু ইয়াৰ ভৱিষ্যত সম্পৰ্কে দাৰ্শনিক তৰ্ক-বিতৰ্ক বহুকালৰে পৰা চলি আহিছে | [[নব্য-লুডিবাদ]](Neo-Luddism), | [[নৈৰাজ্য-আদিবাদ]](anarcho-primitivism) আৰু তেনে বিপ্লৱবোৰে আধুনিক জগতত প্ৰযুক্তিৰ বহুল প্ৰসাৰে পৰিবেশ আৰু মানৱতা বিনষ্ট কৰা বুলি সমালোচনা কৰি আহিছে | আনহাতে [[প্ৰযুক্তি-প্ৰগতিবাদ]]ৰ দৰে ধাৰণাই প্ৰযুক্তিক সমাজ আৰু মানুহৰ অৱস্থাৰ উন্নতিৰ বাবে লাভদায়ক বুলি যুক্তি দৰ্শায় | কিছুবছৰৰ আগলৈকে প্ৰযুক্তিৰ বিকাশ কেৱল মানুহৰ মাজত সীমাবদ্ধ বুলি ভবা হৈছিল, কিন্তু শেহতীয়া বৈজ্ঞানিক তথ্যৰ পৰা জানিব পৰা গৈছে যে আন [[প্ৰাইমেট]] আৰু কোনো কোনো [[ডলফিন]] প্ৰজাতিয়ে সাধাৰণ সঁজুলিৰ জ্ঞান বিকাশ কৰি সেয়া পিছৰ প্ৰজন্মলৈ পঠিয়াবলৈ শিকিছে |
== সংজ্ঞা আৰু ব্যৱহাৰ ==
[[চিত্ৰFile:Handtiegelpresse von 1811.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The invention of the [[printing pressছপাশাল]]ৰ madeউদ্ভাৱনে itবিজ্ঞানী possibleআৰু forৰাজনীতিবিদসকলক scientistsসহজে andভাৱৰ [[politician]]sআদান-প্ৰদান toকৰাত communicateসহায় their ideas with ease, leading to the [[Age of Enlightenment]]; an example of technology as a cultural force.কৰিলে]]
The"প্ৰযুক্তি" useশব্দটোৰ ofব্যৱহাৰ theযোৱা term২০০ ''technology''বছৰত hasভালেখিনি changedসলনি significantlyহৈছে over| theবিংশ lastশতিকাৰ 200আগলৈকে years.ইংৰাজী Beforeভাষাত the"technology" 20thশব্দটোৱে century,ঘাইকৈ theব্যৱহাৰিক termকলাৰ wasঅধ্যয়ন uncommonবা inবিৱৰণহে English,বুজাইছিল and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts.<ref name="Crabb">For ex., [[George Crabb (writer)|George Crabb]], [http://www.archive.org/stream/universaltechno01crabgoog#page/n525 ''Universal Technological Dictionary, or Familiar Explanation of the Terms Used in All Arts and Sciences, Containing Definitions Drawn From the Original Writers''], (London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1823), s.v. "technology."</ref>| Theমাছাচুচেট্ছ termপ্ৰযুক্তি wasপ্ৰতিষ্ঠানৰ(Massachusetts oftenInstitute connectedof toTechnology technical) education,দৰে asপ্ৰযুক্তিগত inশিক্ষাৰ theক্ষেত্ৰতো Massachusettsশব্দটোৰ Instituteব্যৱহাৰ ofহৈছিল Technology (chartered in 1861).<ref name="Stratton">Julius Adams Stratton and Loretta H. Mannix, Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 190-92. ISBN 0262195240.</ref>| বিংশ শতিকাৰ [[দ্বিতীয় ঔদ্যোগিক বিপ্লৱ]]ৰ সময়তে শব্দটোৰ প্ৰচলন বাঢ়ি আহে | [[থৰষ্টেইন ভেবলিন]](Thorstein Veblen)কে আদি কৰি আমেৰিকান সমাজবিজ্ঞানীসকলে জাৰ্মান "Technik" শব্দৰ ভাৱানুবাদ ইংৰাজীত "technology" হিছাপে কৰে | ১৯৩০ চন মানৰে পৰা "প্ৰযুক্তি"য়ে ঔদ্যোগিক কলাৰ অধ্যয়নৰ সলনি ঔদ্যোগিক কলাকে বুজাবলৈ ধৰে <ref name="Schatzberg">Eric Schatzberg, [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v047/47.3schatzberg.html "''Technik'' Comes to America: Changing Meanings of ''Technology'' Before 1930,"] ''Technology and Culture'' 47 (July 2006): 486-512.</ref>|
0262195240.</ref> "Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the [[second industrial revolution]]. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with [[Thorstein Veblen]], translated ideas from the German concept of [[:de:Technik|Technik]] into "technology." In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between ''Technik'' and ''Technologie'' that is absent in English, as both terms are usually translated as "technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.<ref name="Schatzberg">Eric Schatzberg, [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v047/47.3schatzberg.html "''Technik'' Comes to America: Changing Meanings of ''Technology'' Before 1930,"] ''Technology and Culture'' 47 (July 2006): 486-512.</ref> In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them."<ref name="Bain">Read Bain, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2084365 "Technology and State Government,"] American Sociological Review 2 (December 1937): 860.</ref> Bain's definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this definition.<ref name="MacKenzie">Donald A. MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, "Introductory Essay" in ''The Social Shaping of Technology'', 2nd ed. (Buckingham, England : Open University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-335-19913-5.</ref> More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on [[technologies of the self]] ("techniques de soi").
১৯৩৭ চনত আমেৰিকান সমাজবিদ ৰিড বেইনে কয় যে "সকলো সঁজুলি, বাচন, অস্ত্ৰ, ঘৰ, যন্ত্ৰ, বস্ত্ৰ, যোগাযোগ তথা যাতায়তৰ সামগ্ৰী আৰু সেইবোৰ তৈয়াৰ বা ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা আমাৰ সমগ্ৰ কৌশল প্ৰযুক্তিৰ অন্তৰ্গত"<ref name="Bain">Read Bain, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2084365 "Technology and State Government,"] American Sociological Review 2 (December 1937): 860.</ref> | বেইনৰ এই সংজ্ঞা সমাজবিদসকলৰ মাজত জনপ্ৰিয় | কিন্তু সমাজবিদসকলে নাকচ কৰা প্ৰযুক্তিৰ ব্যৱহাৰিক বিজ্ঞান সংক্ৰান্তীয় সংজ্ঞাটোহে বিজ্ঞানী আৰু অভিযন্তাসকলৰ মাজত জনপ্ৰিয় <ref name="MacKenzie">Donald A. MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, "Introductory Essay" in ''The Social Shaping of Technology'', 2nd ed. (Buckingham, England : Open University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-335-19913-5.</ref> |
Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".<ref name="mwdict" /> [[Ursula Franklin]], in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.anansi.ca/titles.cfm?series_id=4&pub_id=58 | title=Real World of Technology | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Franklin, Ursula | publisher=[[House of Anansi Press]]}}</ref> The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to [[high technology]] or just [[consumer electronics]], rather than technology as a whole.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/default.stm | title=Technology news | accessdate=2006-02-17 | publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[Bernard Stiegler]], in ''[[Technics and Time, 1]]'', defines technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of life by means other than life", and as "organized inorganic matter."<ref>{{cite book | last=Stiegler |first=Bernard | title=[[Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus]] | year=1998 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] | isbn=0-8047-3041-3 | pages=17, 82}} Stiegler has more recently stated that [[biotechnology]] can no longer be defined as "organized inorganic matter," given that it is, rather, "the reorganization of the organic." {{cite book | last=Stiegler |first=Bernard | title=L'avenir du passé: Modernité de l'archéologie | year=2008 |publisher=La Découverte | isbn=2-7071-5495-4 | page=23}}</ref>
অভিধান আৰু পণ্ডিতসকলে প্ৰযুক্তিৰ বিভিন্ন সংজ্ঞা আগবঢ়াইছে | মেৰিয়াম ৱেবষ্টাৰ অভিধানৰ মতে ই হ’ল-"কোনো বিশেষ ক্ষেত্ৰত জ্ঞানৰ ব্যৱহাৰিক প্ৰয়োগ" আৰু "জ্ঞানৰ ব্যৱহাৰিক প্ৰয়োগৰ পৰা উপজা দক্ষতা""<ref name="mwdict" /> | [[উৰ্চুলা ফ্ৰেংকলিন]]এ আন এটা সংজ্ঞা দিছিল এই বুলি যে-"ই এক অভ্যাস, আমি কামবোৰ যিদৰে কৰোঁ (practice, the way we do things around here)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.anansi.ca/titles.cfm?series_id=4&pub_id=58 | title=Real World of Technology | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Franklin, Ursula | publisher=[[House of Anansi Press]]}}</ref>| আজিকালি শব্দটোক প্ৰযুক্তিৰ কোনো বিশেষ ক্ষেত্ৰ যেনে [[উচ্চ প্ৰযুক্তি]] বা [[উপভোক্তা ইলেকট্ৰনিক্চ]] বুজাবলৈও ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা হয় <ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/default.stm | title=Technology news | accessdate=2006-02-17 | publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> | [[বাৰ্নাড ষ্টিগলাৰ]](Bernard Stiegler)এ "[[Technics and Time, 1]]'' গ্ৰন্থত প্ৰযুক্তিৰ সংজ্ঞা দুই ধৰণে দিছে: "জীৱনৰ বাদে অন্য উপায়েৰে জীৱনৰ সন্ধান"(the pursuit of life by means other than life) আৰু "সংগঠিত অজৈৱ পদাৰ্থ"(organized inorganic matter)<ref>{{cite book | last=Stiegler |first=Bernard | title=[[Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus]] | year=1998 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] | isbn=0-8047-3041-3 | pages=17, 82}} | ষ্টিগলাৰে শেহতীয়াকৈ কৈছে যে [[জৈৱপ্ৰযুক্তি]]ক "সংগঠিত অজৈৱ পদাৰ্থ" বুলি ক’ব পৰা নাযাব আৰু "জৈৱ পদাৰ্থৰ পুনৰ্সংগঠন"হে ইয়াৰ বাবে উপযোগী <ref>{{cite book | last=Stiegler |first=Bernard | title=L'avenir du passé: Modernité de l'archéologie | year=2008 |publisher=La Découverte | isbn=2-7071-5495-4 | page=23}}</ref>|
Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a [[Crowbar (tool)|crowbar]] or wooden [[spoon]], or more complex machines, such as a [[space station]] or [[particle accelerator]]. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as [[computer software]] and [[business method]]s, fall under this definition of technology.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind02/c6/c6s5.htm | work=Science and Engineering Indicators 2002 | title=Industry, Technology and the Global Marketplace: International Patenting Trends in Two New Technology Areas | accessdate=2007-05-07 | publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]}}</ref>
‘প্ৰযুক্তি’ শব্দটোক বিভিন্ন কৌশলৰ সমষ্টি বুজাবলৈও ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিব পাৰি | এই দিশত ই হৈছে সামগ্ৰী উত্পাদনৰ বাবে সম্পদৰ প্ৰয়োগ, সমস্যা সমাধান, প্ৰয়োজন পূৰা কৰা বা সন্তুষ্টিৰ বাবে মানৱ জ্ঞানৰ অৱস্থা | বিভিন্ন প্ৰণালী, দক্ষতা, কৌশল, সঁজুলি আৰু কেঁচামাল ইয়াত সন্নিৱিষ্ট | আন শব্দৰ লগত একেলগে ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিলে, যেনে-"ভেষজ প্ৰযুক্তি" বা "মহাকাশ প্ৰযুক্তি"য়ে সেই ক্ষেত্ৰৰ জ্ঞান আৰু সঁজুলিৰ অৱস্থা বুজায় | "[[ষ্টেট-অৱ-দা-আৰ্ট]]" প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে যিকোনো ক্ষেত্ৰত উপলব্ধ [[উচ্চ প্ৰযুক্তি]]ক বুজায় |
The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. "[[State-of-the-art]] technology" refers to the [[high technology]] available to humanity in any field.
Technologyপ্ৰযুক্তিক canসংস্কৃতি beনিৰ্মাণ viewedবা asসলনি anকৰা activityকাৰ্য্য thatবুলিও formsক’ব orপাৰি changes culture.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Borgmann | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Borgmann | year=2006 | title=Technology as a Cultural Force: For Alena and Griffin | journal=The Canadian Journal of Sociology | volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=351–360 | url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/canadian_journal_of_sociology/v031/31.3borgmann.html | format=fee required | accessdate=2007-02-16 | doi=10.1353/cjs.2006.0050}}</ref>| Additionally,তাৰ technologyউপৰিও isজীৱনৰ theউন্নতিৰ applicationবাবে of mathগণিত, science,বিজ্ঞান andআৰু theকলাৰ artsপ্ৰয়োগো forপ্ৰযুক্তি the| benefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise ofউদাহৰণস্বৰূপে [[communicationযোগাযোগ]] technology,প্ৰযুক্তিয়ে whichমানুহৰ hasভাৱ lessenedআদান-প্ৰদানৰ barriersবাধা toআঁতৰাই humanনতুন interactionউপ-সংস্কৃতি and,গঢ় asদিয়াত a result, has helped spawn newসহায় subculturesকৰিছে; the rise ofতেনেকৈ [[cybercultureচাইবাৰ সংস্কৃতি]]ৰ has, at its basis, the development ofঅন্তৰালত theআছে [[Internetইণ্টাৰনেট]] and theআৰু [[computerকম্পিউটাৰ]].ৰ বিকাশ <ref>{{cite web | url=http://macek.czechian.net/defining_cyberculture.htm | title=Defining Cyberculture | accessdate=2007-05-25 | author=Macek, Jakub}}</ref> Not| allসকলো technologyপ্ৰযুক্তিয়ে enhancesসংস্কৃতিৰ cultureসৃষ্টিমূলক inবিকাশ a creative wayনকৰে; technologyইয়াক canবন্দুকৰ alsoদৰে helpসঁজুলিৰ facilitateজৰিয়তে politicalৰাজনৈতিক oppressionউত্পীড়ন andআৰু warযুদ্ধৰ viaকামতো toolsব্যৱহাৰ suchকৰা asহয় guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both [[science]] and [[engineering]], each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.|
{{-}}
== বিজ্ঞান, অভিযান্ত্ৰিক আৰু প্ৰযুক্তি ==
The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. [[Science]] is the [[reasoned]] investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements of the [[phenomenal]] world by employing [[Formality|formal]] techniques such as the [[scientific method]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/science | title=Science | accessdate=2007-02-17 | publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]}}</ref> Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as [[utility]], [[usability]] and [[safety]].
Engineering is the [[goal-oriented]] process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, [[mathematics|mathematical]], [[language|linguistic]], and [[history|historical]] knowledge, to achieve some practical result.
Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of [[electron]]s in [[electrical conductor]]s, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines, such as [[semiconductor]]s, [[computer]]s, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/ | title=Intute: Science, Engineering and Technology | accessdate=2007-02-17 | publisher=[[Intute]]}}</ref>
The exact relations between science and technology in particular have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science. In the immediate wake of [[World War II]], for example, in the United States it was widely considered that technology was simply "applied science" and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time. An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in [[Vannevar Bush]]'s treatise on postwar science policy, ''Science—The Endless Frontier'': "New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature... This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research." In the late-1960s, however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific community). The issue remains contentious—though most analysts resist the model that technology simply is a result of scientific research.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=George |last=Wise |title=Science and Technology |journal=Osiris (2nd Series) |volume=1 |year=1985 |pages=229–246 |postscript=<!--None--> }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=David H. |last=Guston |title=Between politics and science: Assuring the integrity and productivity of research |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0521653185 |postscript=<!--None--> }}.</ref>
== ইতিহাস ==
{{Main|History of technology|Timeline of historic inventions}}
=== Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC) ===
[[চিত্ৰ:Chopper of Dmanisi.png|thumb|right|A primitive [[chopper (archaeology)|chopper]]]]
The use of tools by [[Homo (genus)|early humans]] was partly a process of discovery, partly of evolution. Early humans evolved from a [[Australopithecus afarensis|species]] of [[foraging]] [[hominids]] which were already [[bipedal]],<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml|title=Mother of man – 3.2 million years ago |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> with a brain mass approximately one third that of modern humans.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=212317|title=Human Evolution|publisher=[[History (TV channel)|History channel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080423204038/http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=212317 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-04-23}}</ref> Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history, but approximately 50,000 years ago, a [[behavioral modernity|complex set of behaviors]] and tool use emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern [[language]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9503E0DF173CF936A25754C0A9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=1|title= Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2003-07-15|author=Wade, Nicholas}}</ref>
==== Stone tools ====
[[চিত্ৰ:Biface de St Acheul MHNT.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hand axes from the [[Acheulian]] period]]
[[চিত্ৰ:Clovis Point.jpg|upright|thumb|A [[Clovis point]], made via [[Lithic reduction#Pressure flaking|pressure flaking]]]]
Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' approximately 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm | title=Human Ancestors Hall: Homo sapiens | accessdate=2007-12-08 | publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] }}</ref> The earliest methods of [[stone tool]] making, known as the [[Oldowan]] "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/336555.stm | title=Ancient 'tool factory' uncovered | accessdate=2007-02-18 | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=1999-05-06}}</ref> with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in [[Ethiopia]] within the [[Great Rift Valley]], dating back to 2.5 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids | last=Heinzelin | first=Jean de | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | month=April | year=1999 | volume=284 | issue=5414 | pages=625–629 | doi= 10.1126/science.284.5414.625 | pmid=10213682 | last2=Clark | first2=JD | last3=White | first3=T | last4=Hart | first4=W | last5=Renne | first5=P | last6=Woldegabriel | first6=G | last7=Beyene | first7=Y | last8=Vrba | first8=E}}</ref> This era of stone tool use is called the ''[[Paleolithic]]'', or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of [[agriculture]] approximately 12,000 years ago.
To make a stone tool, a "[[lithic core|core]]" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as [[flint]]) was struck with a [[hammerstone]]. This flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone as well as on the flakes, either of which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of [[chopper (archaeology)|choppers]] or [[scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]].<ref name="ea_archaeology">{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://ea.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0019880-04|title=Archaeology|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Americana]]|author=Burke, Ariane |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080513213506/http://ea.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0019880-04 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-05-13}}</ref> These tools greatly aided the early humans in their [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones to get at the [[Bone marrow|marrow]]); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its [[hides|hide]]; and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Flaked Stones and Old Bones: Biological and Cultural Evolution at the Dawn of Technology|author= Plummer, Thomas|publisher=[[Yearbook of Physical Anthropology]]|year=2004|issue=47}}</ref>
The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. In the [[Acheulian]] era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stone into specific shapes, such as [[hand axe]]s emerged. The [[Middle Paleolithic]], approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the [[prepared-core technique]], where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.<ref name="ea_archaeology" /> The [[Upper Paleolithic]], beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of [[Lithic reduction#Pressure flaking|pressure flaking]], where a wood, bone, or antler [[punch (engineering)|punch]] could be used to shape a stone very finely.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge|author= Haviland, William A.|publisher=[[The Thomson Corporation]]|year=2004|isbn=0534624871|page=77}}</ref>
==== Fire ====
The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple [[energy]] source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind.<ref>{{cite book | last=Crump | first=Thomas | title=A Brief History of Science | year=2001 | publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] | isbn=1-84119-235-X | page=9}}</ref> The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the [[Cradle of Humankind]] suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1,000,000 BC;<ref>{{cite web | url=http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=915 | title=Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs | accessdate=2007-03-10 | publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> scholarly consensus indicates that [[Homo erectus]] had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and 400,000 BC.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab10 | title=History of Stone Age Man | accessdate=2007-02-13 | publisher=History World}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene | last=James | first=Steven R. | journal=[[Current Anthropology]] | volume=30 | issue=1 | pages=1–26 | format=fee required | month=February | year=1989 | doi=10.1086/203705 | jstor=2743299}}</ref> Fire, fueled with [[wood]] and [[charcoal]], allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stahl | first= Ann B. | year=1984 | title=Hominid dietary selection before fire | journal=[[Current Anthropology]] | volume=25 | pages= 151–168 | format=fee required | doi=10.1086/203106 | issue=2 | jstor=2742818}}</ref>
==== Clothing and shelter ====
Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were [[clothing]] and shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm | title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Archaic Homo sapiens Culture | accessdate=2007-03-31 | author=O'Neil, Dennis | publisher=[[Palomar College]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Villa | first=Paola | year=1983 | title=Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France| publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] | isbn= 0-520-09662-2 |page= 303}}</ref> Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to [[Historical migration|migrate]]
out of Africa by 200,000 BC and into other continents, such as [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Cordaux | first=Richard | coauthors=Stoneking, Mark | title=South Asia, the Andamanese and the genetic evidence for an "early" human dispersal out of Africa | journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] | year=2003 | volume=72 | url=http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |format=PDF| pages=1586 | doi=10.1086/375407 | pmid=12817589 | issue=6 | pmc=1180321}}</ref>
=== Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD) ===
[[চিত্ৰ:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.]]
Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the [[Neolithic]] period ("New stone age"). The invention of polished [[stone axe]]s was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms. The discovery of [[agriculture]] allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and the transition to a [[sedentism|sedentist]] lifestyle increased the number of children that could be simultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to be carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm|title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period|publisher=[[Science Daily]]|date=2006-01-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|accessdate=2008-05-17|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|author=Sussman, Robert W. |coauthors= Hall, Roberta L.|volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|month=April|year=1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977}}</ref>
With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization.<ref>{{cite book|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://books.google.com/?id=isGyuX9motEC&pg=PA163&lpg=PA163&dq=labor+neolithic+population|title=Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective|publisher=[[The Thomson Corporation]]|author=Ferraro, Gary P.|year=2006|isbn=0495030392}}</ref> What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as [[Uruk]], and the first civilizations, such as [[Sumer]], is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] social structures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges, such as the building of [[Dike (construction)|dikes]] and [[reservoir]]s, are all thought to have played a role.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=labor+surplus+neolithic+population|accessdate=2008-05-17|title=The ESSENTIALS of Ancient History|publisher=Research & Education Association|author=Patterson, Gordon M.|year=1992|isbn=9780878917044}}</ref>
==== Metal tools ====
Continuing improvements led to the [[furnace]] and [[bellows]] and provided the ability to [[smelting|smelt]] and [[forge]] native metals (naturally occurring in relatively pure form).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html | title=A Short History of Metals | accessdate=2007-01-08 | last=Cramb | first=Alan W | publisher=[[Carnegie Mellon University]]}}</ref> [[Gold]], [[copper]], [[silver]], and [[lead]], were such early metals. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of [[Neolithic]] times (about 8000 BC).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VANVAEjBG-QC&pg=PA708&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=fl2NR6ODGYbWiwGW8Zi_BA|accessdate=2008-05-17|author= Chisholm, Hugh|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|year=1910|page=708}}</ref> Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of [[alloys]] such as [[bronze]] and [[brass]] (about 4000 BC). The first uses of iron alloys such as [[steel]] dates to around 1400 BC.
==== Energy and Transport ====
[[চিত্ৰ:Wheel Iran.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[wheel]] was invented circa 4000 BC.]]
Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailboat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dodge|first=Darrell|title=Part 1 - Early History Through 1875|url=http://www.telosnet.com/wind/early.html|work=Illustrated History of Wind Power Development|accessdate=23 June 2010}}</ref> The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BC.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dollinger|first=André|title=Ships and Boats|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/navigation.htm|work=Pharaonic Egypt|accessdate=23 June 2010}}</ref> From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required another invention.
According to archaeologists, the [[wheel]] was invented around 4000 B.C. probably independently and nearly-simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day [[Iraq]]), the Northern Caucasus ([[Maykop culture]]) and Central Europe. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000 B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings were made. There is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were used for the production of [[Potter's wheel|pottery]]. (Note that the original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center and mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.angelfire.com/country/veneti/AmerDomoOldestWheel.html | title=Slovenian Marsh Yields World's Oldest Wheel | accessdate=2007-02-13 | publisher=Ameriška Domovina | date=2003-03-27}}</ref>
The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as transportation, war, and the production of pottery (for which it may have been first used). It didn't take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.
=== Medieval and Modern history (300 AD —) ===
{{Main|Medieval technology|Renaissance technology|Industrial Revolution|Second industrial revolution|Productivity improving technologies (historical)}}
Innovations continued through the [[Middle Ages]] with new innovations such as [[silk]], the [[horse collar]] and [[horseshoe]]s in the first few hundred years after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. [[Medieval technology]] saw the use of [[simple machine]]s (such as the [[lever]], the [[screw]], and the [[pulley]]) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the [[wheelbarrow]], [[windmill]]s and [[clock]]s. The [[Renaissance technology|Renaissance]] brought forth many of these innovations, including the [[printing press]] (which facilitated the greater communication of knowledge), and technology became increasingly associated with [[science]], beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. The advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider availability of consumer goods.
Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the [[Industrial Revolution]] was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of [[Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]], [[manufacturing]], [[mining]], [[metallurgy]] and [[transport]], driven by the discovery of [[steam power]]. Technology later took another step with the harnessing of [[electricity]] to create such innovations as the [[electric motor]], [[light bulb]] and countless others. Scientific advancement and the discovery of new concepts later allowed for [[flight|powered flight]], and advancements in [[medicine]], [[chemistry]], [[physics]] and [[engineering]]. The rise in technology has led to the construction of [[skyscraper]]s and large cities whose inhabitants rely on [[automobile]]s or other powered transit for transportation. Communication was also improved with the invention of the [[telegraph]], [[telephone]], [[radio]] and [[television]].
The second half of the 20th century brought a host of new innovations. In [[physics]], the discovery of [[nuclear fission]] has led to both [[nuclear weapons]] and [[nuclear power]]. [[Computers]] were also invented and later [[miniaturization|miniaturized]] utilizing [[transistor]]s and [[integrated circuit]]s. These advancements subsequently led to the creation of the [[Internet]]. Humans have also been able to [[space exploration|explore space]] with [[satellite]]s (later used for [[telecommunication]]) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innovations such as [[Cardiac surgery|open-heart surgery]] and later [[stem cell treatments|stem cell therapy]] along with new [[pharmaceutical drug|medications]] and treatments. Complex [[manufacturing]] and [[construction]] techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and entire [[industry|industries]] have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education — their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been created to support them, including [[engineering]], [[medicine]], and [[computer science]], and other fields have been made more complex, such as [[construction]], [[transportation]] and [[architecture]].
== প্ৰযুক্তি আৰু দৰ্শন ==
=== Technicism ===
Generally, [[technicism]] is a reliance or confidence in technology as a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme, technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future using technology. Some, such as [[Stephen V. Monsma]],<ref name="Monsma 1986">{{cite book| last = Monsma | first = Stephen V.| publisher = W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co|location= [[Grand Rapids, Michigan|Grand Rapids]]| title = Responsible Technology | year= 1986| isbn = 0802801757 }}</ref> connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority.
=== Optimism ===
{{See also|Extropianism}}
Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as [[transhumanism]] and [[singularitarianism]], which view [[technological evolution|technological development]] as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of [[scientism]] and [[techno-utopianism]] and fear the notion of [[human enhancement]] and [[technological singularity]] which they support. Some have described [[Karl Marx]] as a techno-optimist.<ref name="Hughes 2002">{{cite journal| author = Hughes, James| title = Democratic Transhumanism 2.0| year= 2002 | url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/DemocraticTranshumanism.htm| accessdate=2007-01-26}}</ref>
=== Skepticism and Critics of Technology ===
{{See also|Luddite|Neo-luddism|Anarcho-primitivism|Bioconservatism}}
On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like [[Herbert Marcuse]] and [[John Zerzan]], who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.
Many, such as the [[Luddite]]s and prominent philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]], hold serious, although not entirely deterministic reservations, about technology (see "[[The Question Concerning Technology]]<ref name="Heidegger 1977">{{cite book | last = Lovitt | first = William | chapter = The Question Concerning Technology | year= 1977 | url = http://www.culturaleconomics.atfreeweb.com/Anno/Heidegger%20The%20Question%201954.htm | accessdate=2007-11-21 | title = The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays | publisher = Harper Torchbooks | pages = 3–35 | isbn = 0613913140}}</ref>)". According to Heidegger scholars [[Hubert Dreyfus]] and Charles Spinosa, "Heidegger does not oppose technology. He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we once open ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselves unexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.'<ref>Martin Heidegger, ‘‘The Question Concerning Technology,’’ in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, trans. W. Lovitt, New York, Harper Torchbooks, 1977, pp. 25–6.</ref>" What this entails is a more complex relationship to technology than either techno-optimists or techno-pessimists tend to allow.<ref>Hubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, "Further Reflections on Heidegger, Technology, and the Everyday," in Nikolas Kompridis, ed. ''Philosophical Romanticism'', New York: Routledge, 2006, 265-281.</ref>
Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for example [[Aldous Huxley|Aldous Huxley's]] ''[[Brave New World]]'' and other writings, [[Anthony Burgess|Anthony Burgess's]] ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', and [[George Orwell|George Orwell's]] ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. And, in ''[[Faust]]'' by [[Goethe]], Faust's selling his soul to the devil in return for power over the physical world, is also often interpreted as a metaphor for the adoption of industrial technology. More recently, modern works of science fiction, such as those by [[Philip K. Dick]] and [[William Gibson]], and films (e.g. [[Blade Runner]], [[Ghost in the Shell]]) project highly ambivalent or cautionary attitudes toward technology's impact on human society and identity.
The late cultural critic [[Neil Postman]] distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and, finally, what he called "technopolies," that is, societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress, to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values and world-views.<ref>Neil Postman, ''Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology'', New York: Vintage, 1993.</ref>
Darin Barney has written about technology's impact on practices of [[citizenship]] and democratic culture, suggesting that technology can be construed as (1) an object of political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion, and (3) a setting for democratic deliberation and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney suggests that technology tends to make [[ethics|ethical]] questions, including the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible, because they already give an answer to the question: a good life is one that includes the use of more and more technology.<ref>Darin Barney, ''One Nation Under Google'', Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2007.</ref>
[[Nikolas Kompridis]] has also [http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf written] about the dangers of new technology, such as [[genetic engineering]], [[nanotechnology]], [[synthetic biology]] and [[robotics]]. He warns that these technologies introduce unprecedented new challenges to human beings, including the possibility of the permanent alteration of our biological nature. These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and public intellectuals who have written about similar issues (e.g. [[Francis Fukuyama]], [[Jürgen Habermas]], [[William Joy]], and [[Michael Sandel]]).<ref>[http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf Nikolas Kompridis, "Technology's Challenge to Democracy," ''Parrhesia'' 8 (2009)], 20-33.</ref>
Another prominent critic of technology is [[Hubert Dreyfus]], who has published books ''On the Internet'' and ''What Computers Still Can't Do''.
Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is ''[[s:Industrial Society and Its Future|Industrial Society and Its Future]]'', written by [[Theodore Kaczynski]] (aka The [[Unabomber]]) and printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campaign of the techno-industrial infrastructure.
=== Appropriate technology ===
{{See also|Technocriticism|Technorealism}}
The notion of [[appropriate technology]], however, was developed in the 20th century (e.g., see the work of [[Jacques Ellul]]) to describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to some centralized [[infrastructure]] or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The [[eco-village]] movement emerged in part due to this concern.
== Technology and competitiveness ==
In 1983 a classified program was initiated in the [[US intelligence community]] to reverse the US declining economic and military competitiveness. The program, [[Project Socrates]], used all source intelligence to review competitiveness worldwide for all forms of competition to determine the source of the US decline. What Project Socrates determined was that technology exploitation is the foundation of all [[competitive advantage]] and that the source of the US declining competitiveness was the fact that decision-making through the US both in the private and public sectors had switched from decision making that was based on technology exploitation (i.e., technology-based planning) to decision making that was based on money exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the end of World War II.
Technology is properly defined as any application of science to accomplish a function. The science can be leading edge or well established and the function can have high visibility or be significantly more mundane but it is all technology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage.
Technology-based planning is what was used to build the US industrial giants before WWII (e.g., [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow]], [[DuPont]], [[General Motors|GM]]) and it what was used to transform the US into a superpower. It was not economic-based planning.
Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US competitiveness, decision making through out the US had to readopt technology-based planning. Project Socrates also determined that countries like China and India had continued executing technology-based (while the US took its detour into economic-based) planning, and as a result had considerable advanced the process and were using it to build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild US competitiveness the US decision-makers needed adopt a form of technology-based planning that was far more advanced than that used by China and India.
Project Socrates determined that technology-based planning makes an evolutionary leap forward every few hundred years and the next evolutionary leap, the Automated Innovation Revolution, was poised to occur. In the Automated Innovation Revolution the process for determining how to acquire and utilize technology for a competitive advantage (which includes R&D) is automated so that it can be executed with unprecedented speed, efficiency and agility.
Project Socrates developed the means for automated innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Innovation Revolution in order to rebuild and maintain the country's economic competitiveness for many generations.<ref>{{cite news | first = Gene | last = Koprowski | title = Tech Intelligence Revival? Commerce May Model on DIA's Project Socrates | date = 1991-03-07 | work = Washington Technology | accessdate = 2006-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Esther | last = Smith | title = DoD Unveils Competitive Tool: Project Socrates Offers Valuable Analysis | date = 1988-05-05 | work = Washington Technology | accessdate = 2011-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Stanley | last = Holmes | title = Technology boosts U.S. on battlefield, Stuart expert says | date = 1991-01-19 | work = The Stuart News | accessdate = 2011-04-25}}</ref>
== Other animal species ==
[[চিত্ৰ:Gorilla tool use.png|right|thumbnail|This adult [[gorilla]] uses a branch as a [[walking stick]] to gauge the water's depth; an example of technology usage by primates.]]<!-- Could do with cropping -->
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans. These include primates such as [[chimpanzee]]s, some [[dolphin]] communities,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html | title=Chimpanzee Tool Use | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann; Leakey, Richard |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060921062716/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm | title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum. | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Rincon, Paul | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=2005-06-07}}</ref> and [[crow]]s.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-17|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21135366/|title=Crows use tools to find food|publisher=[[MSNBC]]|date=2007-10-04|author=Schmid, Randolph E.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Rutz, C.; Bluff, L.A.; Weir, A.A.S.; Kacelnik, A.|title=Video cameras on wild birds|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=2007-10-04}}</ref> Considering a more generic perspective of technology as ethology of active environmental conditioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their honeycombs.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus [[Homo (genus)|Homo]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Oakley | first=K. P. | title=Man the Tool-Maker | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1976 | isbn=978-0226612706}}</ref> However, the discovery of tool construction among chimpanzees and related primates has discarded the notion of the use of technology as unique to humans. For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees utilising tools for foraging: some of the tools used include leaf sponges, termite fishing probes, [[pestle]]s and [[lever]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=McGrew | first=W. C | year=1992 | title=Chimpanzee Material Culture | publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press | isbn=978-0521423717 | location=Cambridge u.a.}}</ref> West African [[chimpanzee]]s also use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Boesch | first=Christophe | title=Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking | year=1984 | journal=[[Primates (journal)|Primates]] | issue=25 | pages=160–170 | coauthors=Boesch, Hedwige | url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/e7x6620732717288/ | format=fee required | doi=10.1007/BF02382388 | volume=25}}</ref> as do [[capuchin monkey]]s of [[Boa Vista]], Brazil.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nutcracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job.html Nut-cracking monkeys find the right tool for the job], New Scientist, 15 January 2009</ref>
{{Clear}}
== Future technology ==
{{main|Emerging technologies}}
[[Theories of technology]] often attempt to predict the future of technology based on the [[high technology]] and science of the time.
== See also ==
{{Main|Outline of technology}}
{{multicol}}
* [[Bernard Stiegler]]
* [[Golden hammer]]
* [[Critique of technology]]
* [[History of science and technology]]
* [[Knowledge economy]]
* [[Lewis Mumford]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Luddite]]
* [[Niche construction]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[Technological convergence]]
* [[Technology and society]]
* [[Technology tree]]
* [[-ology]]
* [[Science and technology]]
* [[Science and technology in Argentina]]
* [[Superpower#Possible factors|Technological superpowers]]
{{multicol-break}}
{{multicol-end}}
{{Wikipedia-Books}}
{{Portal|Technology}}
=== Theories and concepts in technology ===
{{Main|Theories of technology}}
{{multicol}}
* [[Appropriate technology]]
* [[Diffusion of innovations]]
* [[Paradigm]]
* [[Philosophy of technology]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
* [[Precautionary principle]]
* [[Strategy of technology]]
* [[Techno-progressivism]]
* [[Technocentrism]]
* [[Technocracy]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Technocriticism]]
* [[Technological evolution]]
* [[Technological determinism]]
* [[Technological nationalism]]
* [[Technology readiness level]]
* [[Technological singularity]]
* [[Jacques Ellul|Technological society]]
* [[Technorealism]]
* [[Technological revival]]
* [[Transhumanism]]
* [[Technology Management]]
{{multicol-end}}
{{multicol}}
=== Economics of technology ===
{{div col}}
* [[Technocracy (bureaucratic)]]
* [[Technocapitalism]]
* [[Diffusion (business)|Technological diffusion]]
* [[Technology acceptance model]]
* [[Technology lifecycle]]
* [[Technology transfer]]
* [[Energy accounting]]
* [[Nanosocialism]]
* [[Post-scarcity]]
{{multicol-end}}
{{div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== বহিঃসংযোগ ==
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |authorlink=Michael Kremer |last=Kremer |first=Michael |year=1993 |title=Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990 |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=681–716 |doi=10.2307/2118405 |url=http://jstor.org/stable/2118405 |publisher=The MIT Press |postscript=<!--None--> }}.
* [[Frank Popper]] (2007) ''From Technological to Virtual Art'', Leonardo Books, [[MIT Press]]
* [[Charlie Gere]] (2005) ''Art, Time and Technology: Histories of the Disappearing Body'', Berg
* {{cite journal | author=Ambrose, Stanley H. | title=Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution | publisher=''Science'' | date=2001-03-02 | url=http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~junwang4/langev/localcopy/pdf/ambrose01science.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate=2007-03-10}}
* [[Kevin Kelly]]. ''[[What Technology Wants]]''. New York, [[Viking Press]], October 14, 2010, hardcover, 416 pages. ISBN 978-0-670-02215-1
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Technology}}
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/5170618/Technology-for-kids W5H of Technology] Technology for Kids
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