ৱিকিপিডিয়া

আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং

এই প্ৰবন্ধত বৰ্তমান গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ সালসলনিৰ কাম চলি আছে। সম্পাদনা দ্বন্দ্ব এৰাই চলিবলৈ এই জাননী থকা পৰ্যন্ত ইয়াত কোনোধৰণৰ সম্পাদনা নকৰিব। বৰ্তমান কাম কৰি থকা লিখকৰ নাম জানিবলৈ ইচ্ছা কৰিলে এই লিংক চাওক। যদি এই প্ৰবন্ধত দুসপ্তাহৰ অধিক সময় কাম হোৱা নাই, তেনেহ'লে এই সাঁচটো আঁতৰাই দিব পাৰে।

ছাৰ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং FRS FRSE FRCS [1] (৬ আগষ্ট ১৮৮১ – ১১ মাৰ্চ ১৯৫৫) এজন স্কটিছ চিকিৎসক আৰু অনুজীৱ বিজ্ঞানী আছিল। তেওঁ ১৯২৮ চনত পৃথিৱীৰ প্ৰথমটো প্ৰতিজৈৱিক পদাৰ্থ বা এণ্টিবায়'টিকৰ আৱিষ্কাৰৰ বাবে বিখ্যাত। ইয়াক তেওঁ পেনিচিলিন নাম দিছিল আৰু পাছলৈ বেন্‌জাইল পেনিচিলিন (বা পেনিচিলিন জি) নাম দিয়া হয়। পেনিচিলিয়াম ৰুবেন্স নামৰ ভেঁকুৰৰ পৰা উলিওৱা এই প্ৰতিজৈৱিকৰ আৱিষ্কাৰক "ৰোগৰ বিপক্ষে সবাতোকৈ ডাঙৰ জয়" আখ্যা দিয়া হয়।[3][4] এই আৱিষ্কাৰৰ বাবে তেওঁ ১৯৪৫ চনত হাৱাৰ্ড ফ্ল'ৰে আৰু আৰ্নষ্ট ব'ৰিছ চেইনৰ সৈতে শৰীৰতত্ব বা চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞানৰ নোবেল বঁটা লাভ কৰিছিল।[5][6][7]

আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং

পৰীক্ষাগাৰত ফ্লেমিং সাঁচ:C. ১৯৪৩
জন্ম ০৬ আগষ্ট, ১৮৮১
ডাৰৱেল, আৰশ্বায়াৰ, স্কটলেণ্ড
মৃত্যু ১১ মাৰ্চ, ১৯৫৫ (৭৩ বছৰ)
লণ্ডন, ইংলেণ্ড
ক্ষেত্ৰ বেক্টেৰিয়া বিজ্ঞান, দেহপ্ৰতিৰক্ষা বিজ্ঞান
শিক্ষানুষ্ঠান
  • ৰয়েল পলিটেক্‌নিক ইন্‌ষ্টিটিউচন
  • ছেইণ্ট মেৰীজ হস্পিতেল মেডিকেল স্কুল
  • ইম্পেৰিয়েল কলেজ, লণ্ডন
জনা যায় পেনিচিলিনৰ আৱিষ্কাৰ আৰু লাইজ'জাইম
উল্লেখনীয় বঁটা
  • ৰয়েল ছ'চাইটিৰ ফেল', FRS (১৯৪৩)[1]
  • নাইট বেচেলৰ (১৯৪৪)
  • Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh (১৯৪৫)
  • শৰীৰতত্ব বা চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞানৰ নোবেল বঁটা (১৯৪৫)[2]
  • ৰয়েল ছ'চাইটি অৱ এডিনবাৰ্গৰ ফেল', FRSE
  • ৰয়েল কলেজ অৱ ছাৰ্জনছ অৱ ইংলেণ্ডৰ ফেল', FRCS
স্বাক্ষৰ

তেওঁ ১৯২২ চনত নিজৰ নাকৰ ক্ষৰণৰ পৰা এটা উৎসেচক আৱিষ্কাৰ কৰি লাইজ'জাইম নাম দিয়ে আৰু তাৰ লগতে এটা বেক্টেৰিয়া উলিয়াই Micrococcus Lysodeikticus নাম দিয়ে (পাছলৈ মাইক্ৰ'ক'কাছ লুটিয়াছ।

১৯৪৪ চনত ফ্লেমিঙক তেওঁৰ বৈজ্ঞানিক অৱদানৰ বাবে নাইটহুড প্ৰদান কৰা হয়।[8] ১৯৯৯ চনত তেওঁক টাইম আলোচনীৰ বিংশ শতিকাৰ ১০০ গৰাকী গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ ব্যক্তিৰ তালিকাত স্থান দিয়া হয়। ২০০২ চনত তেওঁ বিচিচি'ৰ ১০০ গৰাকী শ্ৰেষ্ঠ ব্ৰিটিছৰ সমীক্ষাত স্থান পায় আৰু ২০০৯ চনত STVয়ে কৰ এটা সমীক্ষাত ৰবাৰ্ট বাৰ্নছ আৰু ৱিলিয়াম ৱালেছৰ পাছতে তৃতীয় "শ্ৰেষ্ঠ স্কট"ৰ সন্মা লাভ কৰে।

প্ৰাৰম্ভিক জীৱন আৰু শিক্ষা

সম্পাদনা কৰক

স্কটলেণ্ডৰ আৰশ্বাআৰৰ ডাৰৱেলৰ ওচৰৰ লকফিল্ড পামত ১৮৮১ চনৰ ৬ আগষ্টৰত আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিঙৰ জন্ম হয়। তেওঁ খেতিয়ক হিউ ফেমিং আৰু গ্ৰেছ ষ্টাৰলিং মৰ্টনৰ চাৰিটা সন্তানৰ তৃতীয় আছিল। প্ৰথম বিবাহৰো সন্তান থকা হিউ ফ্লেমিঙে ৫৯ বছৰ বয়সত গ্ৰেছক বিয়া কৰাইছিল আৰু আলেজেণ্ডাৰৰ সাত বছৰ বয়সত তেওঁৰ মৃত্যু হৈছিল। [9]

স্থানীয় বিদ্যালয়ত পঢ়া আৰম্ভ কৰি আলেকজেণ্ডাৰে কিলমাৰ্নক একাডেমীৰ দুবছৰীয়া জলপানি লাভ কৰে আৰু তাৰ পাছত লণ্ডনলৈ গৈ ৰয়েল পলিটেক্নিক ইন্‌ষ্টিটিউচনত নাম লগায়।[10] ১৯০৩ চনত চিকিৎসক ককায়েক টমৰ উপদেশ অনুসৰি আলেকজেণ্ডাৰে পেডিংটনৰ ছেইণ্ট মেৰীজ হস্পিতেল মেডিকেল স্কুলত নাম লগায়। ১৯০৬ চনত তেওঁ সন্মানসহকাৰে MBBS ডিগ্ৰী লাভ কৰে।[9]

ফ্লেমিং ১৯০০ চনৰ পৰা ১৯১৪ চনলৈ[5][11] স্বেচ্ছাসেৱী দলৰ লণ্ডন স্কটিছ ৰেজিমেণ্টৰ প্ৰাইভেট আছিল আৰু মেডিকেল স্কুলৰ ৰাইফল ক্লাবৰো সদস্য আছিল। ক্লাবৰ কেপ্টেইনে ফ্লেমিঙক এৰিব নুখুজি তেওঁক ছেইণ্ট মেৰীজৰ গৱেষণা বিভাগত সোমাবলৈ পৰামৰ্শ দিলে আৰু সেইমৰ্মে প্ৰতিষেধক থেৰাপী আৰু ইম্যুন'ল'জীৰ অগ্ৰণী গৱেষক ছাৰ আল্মৰথ ৰাইটৰ সহকাৰী বেক্টেৰিয়'ল'জিষ্ট হিচাপে মৰকল হ'ল। ১৯০৮ চনত তেওঁ বেক্টেৰিয়া বিজ্ঞানত স্বৰ্ণপদক সহ স্নাতক ডিগ্ৰী লাভ কৰে আৰু ১৯১৪ চনলৈ ছেইণ্ট মেৰীজতে বক্তা পদত চাকৰি কৰে।

১৯১৭ চনত কেপ্টেইনৰ পদ পোৱা[11] ফ্লেমিঙে ৰয়েল আৰ্মী মেডিকেল কৰ্পছৰ সৈতে প্ৰথম বিশ্বযুদ্ধত সেৱা আগবঢ়ায়। ১৯১৮ চনত তেওঁ ছেইণ্ট মেৰীজ হস্পিতেল ঘূৰি আহি লণ্ডন বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ৰ বেক্টেৰিয়া বিজ্ঞান বিভাগৰ অধ্যাপক পদত যোগদান কৰে। ১৯৫১ চনত তেওঁ তিনি বছৰৰ বাবে এডিনবাৰ্গ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ৰ ৰেক্টৰ হিচাপে নিৰ্বাচিত হয়।[9]

বৈজ্ঞানিক অৱদান

সম্পাদনা কৰক

এণ্টিছেপ্টিক

সম্পাদনা কৰক
প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: এণ্টিছেপ্টিক

During World War I, Fleming with Leonard Colebrook and Sir Almroth Wright joined the war efforts and practically moved the entire Inoculation Department of St Mary's to the British military hospital at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Serving as Temporary Lieutenant of the Royal Army Medical Corps, he witnessed the death of many soldiers from sepsis resulting from infected wounds. Antiseptics, which were used at the time to treat infected wounds, he observed, often worsened the injuries.[12] In an article published in the medical journal The Lancet in 1917, he described an ingenious experiment, which he was able to conduct as a result of his own glassblowing skills, in which he explained why antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during the war. Antiseptics worked well on the surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter anaerobic bacteria from the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that protected the patients in these cases at least as well as they removed bacteria, and did nothing to remove the bacteria that were out of reach.[13] Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of the war continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients.[9]

লাইজ'জাইমৰ আৱিষ্কাৰ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: লাইজ'জাইম

At St Mary's Hospital, Fleming continued his investigations into bacteria culture and antibacterial substances. As his research scholar at the time V.D. Allison recalled, Fleming was not a tidy researcher and usually expected unusual bacterial growths in his culture plates. Fleming had teased Allison of his "excessive tidiness in the laboratory," and Allison rightly attributed such untidiness as the success of Fleming's experiments, and said, "[If] he had been as tidy as he thought I was, he would not have made his two great discoveries."[14]

In late 1921, while he was maintaining agar plates for bacteria, he found that one of the plates was contaminated with bacteria from the air. When he added nasal mucus, he found that the mucus inhibited the bacterial growth.[15] Surrounding the mucus area was a clear transparent circle (1 cm from the mucus), indicating the killing zone of bacteria, followed by a glassy and translucent ring beyond which was an opaque area indicating normal bacterial growth. In the next test, he used bacteria maintained in saline that formed a yellow suspension. Within two minutes of adding fresh mucus, the yellow saline turned completely clear. He extended his tests using tears, which were contributed by his co-workers. As Allison reminisced, saying, "For the next five or six weeks, our tears were the source of supply for this extraordinary phenomenon. Many were the lemons we used (after the failure of onions) to produce a flow of tears... The demand by us for tears was so great, that laboratory attendants were pressed into service, receiving threepence for each contribution."[14]

His further tests with sputum, cartilage, blood, semen, ovarian cyst fluid, pus, and egg white showed that the bactericidal agent was present in all of these.[16] He reported his discovery before the Medical Research Club in December and before the Royal Society the next year but failed to stir any interest, as Allison recollected:

I was present at this [Medical Research Club] meeting as Fleming's guest. His paper describing his discovery was received with no questions asked and no discussion, which was most unusual and an indication that it was considered to be of no importance. The following year he read a paper on the subject before the Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly and he and I gave a demonstration of our work. Again with one exception little comment or attention was paid to it.[14]

Reporting in the 1 May 1922 issue of the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences under the title "On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions," Fleming wrote:

In this communication I wish to draw attention to a substance present in the tissues and secretions of the body, which is capable of rapidly dissolving certain bacteria. As this substance has properties akin to those of ferments I have called it a "Lysozyme," and shall refer to it by this name throughout the communication. The lysozyme was first noticed during some investigations made on a patient suffering from acute coryza.[15]

This was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme. With Allison, he published further studies on lysozyme in October issue of the British Journal of Experimental Pathology the same year.[17] Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, and therefore had little therapeutic potential. This indicates one of the major differences between pathogenic and harmless bacteria.[12] Described in the original publication, "a patient suffering from acute coryza"[15] was later identified as Fleming himself. His research notebook dated 21 November 1921 showed a sketch of the culture plate with a small note: “Staphyloid coccus from A.F.'s nose."[16] He also identified the bacterium present in the nasal mucus as Micrococcus Lysodeikticus, giving the species name (meaning "lysis indicator" for its susceptibility to lysozymal activity).[18] The species was reassigned as Micrococcus luteus in 1972.[19] The "Fleming strain" (NCTC2665) of this bacterium has become a model in different biological studies.[20][21] The importance of lysozyme was not recognised, and Fleming was well aware of this, in his presidential address at the Royal Society of Medicine meeting on 18 October 1932, he said:

I choose lysozyme as the subject for this address for two reasons, firstly because I have a fatherly interest in the name, and, secondly, because its importance in connection with natural immunity does not seem to be generally appreciated.[22]

In his Nobel lecture on 11 December 1945, he briefly mentioned lysozyme, saying, "Penicillin was not the first antibiotic I happened to discover."[23] It was only towards the end of the 20th century that the true importance of Fleming's discovery in immunology was realised as lysozyme became the first antimicrobial protein discovered that constitute part of our innate immunity.[24][25]

পেনিচিলিনৰ আৱিষ্কাৰ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: History of penicillin
 
An advertisement advertising penicillin's "miracle cure"

One sometimes finds what one is not looking for. When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.

—  Alexander Fleming[26]

পৰীক্ষা

সম্পাদনা কৰক

By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher. In 1928, he studied the variation of Staphylococcus aureus grown under natural condition, after the work of Joseph Warwick Bigger, who discovered that the bacterium could grow into a variety of types (strains).[27] On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent a holiday with his family at Suffolk. Before leaving for his holiday, he inoculated staphylococci on culture plates and left them on a bench in a corner of his laboratory.[16] On his return, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking "That's funny".[28] Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Pryce, who reminded him, "That's how you discovered lysozyme."[29] He identified the mould as being from the genus Penicillium. He suspected it to be P. chrysogenum, but a colleague Charles J. La Touche identified it as P. rubrum. (It was later corrected as P. notatum and then officially accepted as P. chrysogenum; in 2011, it was resolved as P. rubens.)[30][31]

 
Commemorative plaque marking Fleming's discovery of penicillin at St Mary's Hospital, London

The laboratory in which Fleming discovered and tested penicillin is preserved as the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington. The source of the fungal contaminant was established in 1966 as coming from La Touche's room, which was directly below Fleming's.[32][33]

Fleming grew the mould in a pure culture and found that the culture broth contained an antibacterial substance. He investigated its anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected bacteria such as staphylococci and many other Gram-positive pathogens that cause scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but not typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever, which are caused by Gram-negative bacteria, for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea, although this bacterium is Gram-negative. After some months of calling it "mould juice" or "the inhibitor", he gave the name penicillin on 7 March 1929 for the antibacterial substance present in the mould.[34]

গ্ৰহণ আৰু প্ৰকাশন

সম্পাদনা কৰক

Fleming presented his discovery on 13 February 1929 before the Medical Research Club. His talk on "A medium for the isolation of Pfeiffer's bacillus" did not receive any particular attention or comment. Henry Dale, the then Director of National Institute for Medical Research and chair of the meeting, much later reminisced that he did not even sense any striking point of importance in Fleming's speech.[16] Fleming published his discovery in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology,[35] but little attention was paid to the article. His problem was the difficulty of producing penicillin in large amounts, and moreover, isolation of the main compound. Even with the help of Harold Raistrick and his team of biochemists at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, chemical purification was futile. "As a result, penicillin languished largely forgotten in the 1930s," as Milton Wainwright described.[36]

As late as in 1936, there was no appreciation for penicillin. When Fleming talked of its medical importance at the Second International Congress of Microbiology held in London,[37][38] no one believed him. As Allison, his companion in both the Medical Research Club and international congress meeting, remarked the two occasions:

[Fleming at the Medical Research Club meeting] suggested the possible value of penicillin for the treatment of infection in man. Again there was a total lack of interest and no discussion. Fleming was keenly disappointed, but worse was to follow. He read a paper on his work on penicillin at a meeting of the International Congress of Microbiology, attended by the foremost bacteriologists from all over the world. There was no support for his views on its possible future value for the prevention and treatment of human infections and discussion was minimal. Fleming bore these disappointments stoically, but they did not alter his views or deter him from continuing his investigation of penicillin.[14]

In 1941, the British Medical Journal reported that "[Penicillin] does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."[39][40][32]

শুদ্ধিকৰণ আৰু সুস্থিৰকৰণ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
 
3D-model of benzylpenicillin

In Oxford, Ernst Boris Chain and Edward Abraham were studying the molecular structure of the antibiotic. Abraham was the first to propose the correct structure of penicillin.[41][42] Shortly after the team published its first results in 1940, Fleming telephoned Howard Florey, Chain's head of department, to say that he would be visiting within the next few days. When Chain heard that Fleming was coming, he remarked "Good God! I thought he was dead."[43]

Norman Heatley suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity. This produced enough of the drug to begin testing on animals. There were many more people involved in the Oxford team, and at one point the entire Sir William Dunn School of Pathology was involved in its production. After the team had developed a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first stable form in 1940, several clinical trials ensued, and their amazing success inspired the team to develop methods for mass production and mass distribution in 1945.[44][45]

Fleming was modest about his part in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as the "Fleming Myth" and he praised Florey and Chain for transforming the laboratory curiosity into a practical drug. Fleming was the first to discover the properties of the active substance, giving him the privilege of naming it: penicillin. He also kept, grew, and distributed the original mould for twelve years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist who had enough skill to make penicillin. Sir Henry Harris summed up the process in 1998 as: "Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin."[46] The discovery of penicillin and its subsequent development as a prescription drug mark the start of modern antibiotics.[47]

চিকিৎসাত ব্যৱহাৰ

সম্পাদনা কৰক

In his first clinical trial, Fleming treated his research scholar Stuart Craddock who had developed severe infection of the nasal antrum (sinusitis). The treatment started on 9 January 1929 but without any effect. It probably was due to the fact that the infection was with influenza bacillus (Haemophilus influenzae), the bacterium which he had found unsusceptible to penicillin.[32] Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.[48][49] Although Wright reportedly said that it "seemed to work satisfactorily,"[50] there are no records of its specific use. Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield and former student of Fleming, was the first to use penicillin successfully for medical treatment.[36] He cured eye infections (conjunctivitis) of one adult and three infants (neonatal conjunctivitis) on 25 November 1930.[51]

 
Fleming in his laboratory in 1943

Fleming also successfully treated severe conjunctivitis in 1932.[3][52][53] Keith Bernard Rogers, who had joined St Mary's as medical student in 1929,[54] was captain of the London University rifle team and was about to participate in an inter-hospital rifle shooting competition when he developed conjunctivitis.[55][56][57] Fleming applied his penicillin and cured Rogers before the competition.[3][52][58] It is said that the "penicillin worked and the match was won." However, the report that "Keith was probably the first patient to be treated clinically with penicillin ointment"[56] is no longer true as Paine's medical records showed up.[34]

There is a popular assertion both in popular and scientific literature that Fleming largely abandoned penicillin work in the early 1930s.[59][60][61][62] In his review of André Maurois's The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, William L. Kissick went so far as to say that "Fleming had abandoned penicillin in 1932... Although the recipient of many honors and the author of much scientific work, Sir Alexander Fleming does not appear to be an ideal subject for a biography."[63] This is false, as Fleming continued to pursue penicillin research.[49][64] As late as in 1939, Fleming's notebook shows attempts to make better penicillin production using different media.[34] In 1941, he published a method for assessment of penicillin effectiveness.[65] As to the chemical isolation and purification, Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford took up the research to mass-produce it, which they achieved with support from World War II military projects under the British and US governments.[66]

By mid-1942, the Oxford team produced the pure penicillin compound as yellow powder.[67] In August 1942, Harry Lambert (an associate of Fleming's brother Robert) was admitted to St Mary's Hospital due to a life-threatening infection of the nervous system (streptococcal meningitis).[68] Fleming treated him with sulphonamides, but Lambert's condition deteriorated. He tested the antibiotic susceptibility and found that his penicillin could kill the bacteria. He requested Florey for the isolated sample. Florey sent the incompletely purified sample, which Fleming immediately administered into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the very next day,[14] and completely recovered within a week.[3][69] Fleming published the clinical case in The Lancet in 1943.[70]

Upon this medical breakthrough, Allison informed the British Ministry of Health of the importance of penicillin and the need for mass production. The War Cabinet was convinced of the usefulness upon which Sir Cecil Weir, Director General of Equipment, called for a meeting on the mode of action on 28 September 1942.[71][72] The Penicillin Committee was created on 5 April 1943. The committee consisted of Weir as chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir Percival Hartley, Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members. The main goals were to produce penicillin rapidly in large quantities with collaboration of American companies, and to supply the drug exclusively for Allied armed forces.[14] By D-Day in 1944, enough penicillin had been produced to treat all the wounded of the Allied troops.[73]

এণ্টিবায়'টিক প্ৰতিৰোধ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
 
Modern antibiotics are tested using a method similar to Fleming's discovery.

Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed antibiotic resistance whenever too little penicillin was used or when it was used for too short a period. Almroth Wright had predicted antibiotic resistance even before it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the use of penicillin in his many speeches around the world. On 26 June 1945, he made the following cautionary statements: "the microbes are educated to resist penicillin and a host of penicillin-fast organisms is bred out ... In such cases the thoughtless person playing with penicillin is morally responsible for the death of the man who finally succumbs to infection with the penicillin-resistant organism. I hope this evil can be averted."[74] He cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a properly diagnosed reason for it to be used, and that if it were used, never to use too little, or for too short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops.[75]

It had been experimentally shown in 1942 that S. aureus could develop penicillin resistance under prolonged exposure.[76] Elaborating the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions in his Nobel Lecture, Fleming said:

The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.[23]

It was around that time that the first clinical case of penicillin resistance was reported.[77]

ব্যক্তিগত জীৱন

সম্পাদনা কৰক
 
Grave of Sir Alexander Fleming in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, London

On 24 December 1915, Fleming married a trained nurse, Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, County Mayo, Ireland. Their only child, Robert Fleming (1924–2015), became a general medical practitioner. After his first wife's death in 1949, Fleming married Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas, a Greek colleague at St. Mary's, on 9 April 1953; she died in 1986.[78]

Fleming came from a Presbyterian background, while his first wife Sarah was a (lapsed) Roman Catholic. It is said that he was not particularly religious, and their son Robert was later received into the Anglican church, while still reportedly inheriting his two parents' fairly irreligious disposition.[79]

When Fleming learned of Robert D. Coghill and Andrew J. Moyer patenting the method of penicillin production in US in 1944,[80] he was furious, and commented:

I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?[14]

From 1921 until his death in 1955, Fleming owned a country home named "The Dhoon" in Barton Mills, Suffolk.[4][81]

মৃত্যু

সম্পাদনা কৰক

On 11 March 1955, Fleming died at his home in London of a heart attack. His ashes are buried in St Paul's Cathedral.[2]

বঁটা আৰু ঐতিহ্য

সম্পাদনা কৰক
 
Sir Alexander Fleming (centre) receiving the Nobel prize from King Gustaf V of Sweden (right) in 1945
 
Faroe Islands postage stamp commemorating Fleming
 
Barcelona to Sir Alexander Fleming (1956), by Catalan sculptor Josep Manuel Benedicto. Barcelona: jardins del Doctor Fleming.

Fleming's discovery of penicillin changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of useful antibiotics; penicillin has saved, and is still saving, millions of people around the world.[82]

The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the Fleming Museum, a popular London attraction. His alma mater, St Mary's Hospital Medical School, merged with Imperial College London in 1988. The Sir Alexander Fleming Building on the South Kensington campus was opened in 1998, where his son Robert and his great-granddaughter Claire were presented to the Queen; it is now one of the main preclinical teaching sites of the Imperial College School of Medicine.

His other alma mater, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) has named one of its student halls of residence Alexander Fleming House, which is near to Old Street.

Myths

সম্পাদনা কৰক

The Fleming myth

সম্পাদনা কৰক

By 1942, penicillin, produced as pure compound, was still in short supply and not available for clinical use. When Fleming used the first few samples prepared by the Oxford team to treat Harry Lambert who had streptococcal meningitis,[3] the successful treatment was a major news, particularly popularised in The Times. Wright was surprised to discover that Fleming and the Oxford team were not mentioned, though Oxford was attributed as the source of the drug. Wright wrote to the editor of The Times, which eagerly interviewed Fleming, but Florey prohibited the Oxford team from seeking media coverage. As a consequence, only Fleming was widely publicised in the media,[94] which led to the misconception that he was entirely responsible for the discovery and development of the drug.[95] Fleming himself referred to this incident as "the Fleming myth."[96][97]

The Churchills

সম্পাদনা কৰক

The popular story[98] of Winston Churchill's father paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young Winston from death is false.[95] According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming, in a letter[99] to his friend and colleague Andre Gratia,[100] described this as "A wondrous fable." Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during World War II. Churchill was saved by Lord Moran, using sulphonamides, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. He was saved by the new sulphonamide drug Sulphapyridine, known at the time under the research code M&B 693, discovered and produced by May & Baker Ltd, Dagenham, Essex – a subsidiary of the French group Rhône-Poulenc. In a subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug as "This admirable M&B".[101] It is highly probable that the correct information about the sulphonamide did not reach the newspapers because, since the original sulphonamide antibacterial, Prontosil, had been a discovery by the German laboratory Bayer, and as Britain was at war with Germany at the time, it was thought better to raise British morale by associating Churchill's cure with a British discovery, penicillin.[উদ্ধৃতিৰ প্ৰয়োজন]


তথ্যসূত্ৰ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Colebrook, L. (1956). "Alexander Fleming 1881–1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society খণ্ড 2: 117–126. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1956.0008. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Sir Alexander Fleming – Biography". Nobel Foundation. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/fleming-bio.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 25 October 2011. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Bennett, Joan W; Chung, King-Thom (2001), "Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin" (en ভাষাত), Advances in Applied Microbiology (Elsevier) খণ্ড 49: 163–184, doi:10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49013-7, ISBN 978-0-12-002649-4, PMID 11757350, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065216401490137, আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 October 2020 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ligon, B. Lee (2004). "Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin" (en ভাষাত). Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases খণ্ড 15 (1): 58–64. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002. PMID 15175996. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1045187004000184. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Alexander Fleming Biography". Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation. 1945. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/fleming.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 27 March 2011. 
  6. ↑ Hugh, TB (2002). "Howard Florey, Alexander Fleming and the fairy tale of penicillin". The Medical Journal of Australia খণ্ড 177 (1): 52–53; author 53 53. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04643.x. PMID 12436980. 
  7. ↑ Cruickshank, Robert (1955). "Sir Alexander Fleming, F.R.S". Nature খণ্ড 175 (4459): 355–6. doi:10.1038/175663a0. PMID 13271592. 
  8. ↑ McIntyre, N (2007). "Sir Alexander Fleming". Journal of Medical Biography খণ্ড 15 (4): 234. doi:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.05-72. PMID 18615899. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Mazumdar, PM (1984). "Fleming as Bacteriologist: Alexander Fleming". Science খণ্ড 225 (4667): 1140–1141. doi:10.1126/science.225.4667.1140. PMID 17782415. 
  10. ↑ Brown, Kevin (2004). Penicillin man : Alexander Fleming and the antibiotic revolution. প্ৰকাশক Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-3152-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=PP06AwAAQBAJ&q=Alexander+Fleming++Loudoun+Moor&pg=PT27। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 11 September 2015. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Kelly's Handbook to the Titled, Landed and Official Classes, 1955. Kelly's. পৃষ্ঠা. 802. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Tan, SY; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015). "Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin". Singapore Medical Journal খণ্ড 56 (7): 366–367. doi:10.11622/smedj.2015105. PMID 26243971. 
  13. ↑ FLEMING, ALEXANDER (September 1917). "The Physiological and Antiseptic Action of Flavine (With Some Observations on the Testing of Antiseptics)". The Lancet খণ্ড 190 (4905): 341–345. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)52126-1. https://zenodo.org/record/2098298. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Allison, V. D. (1974). "Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.". The Ulster Medical Journal খণ্ড 43 (2): 89–98. PMID 4612919. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Fleming, A (1922). "On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions". Proceedings of the Royal Society B খণ্ড 93 (653): 306–317. doi:10.1098/rspb.1922.0023. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Lalchhandama, Kholhring (2020). "Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould" (en ভাষাত). Science Vision খণ্ড 20 (1): 29–42. doi:10.33493/scivis.20.01.03. https://www.sciencevision.org/issue/44/article/292. 
  17. ↑ Fleming, Alexander; Allison, V. D. (1922). "Observations on a Bacteriolytic Substance ("Lysozyme") Found in Secretions and Tissues". British Journal of Experimental Pathology খণ্ড 3 (5): 252–260. 
  18. ↑ Salton, M. R. J. (1957). "The properties of lysozyme and its action on micororganisms". Bacteriological Reviews খণ্ড 21 (2): 82–100. doi:10.1128/MMBR.21.2.82-100.1957. PMID 13436356. 
  19. ↑ Schleifer, K. H.; Kloos, W. E.; Moore, A. (1972). "Taxonomic Status of Micrococcus luteus (Schroeter 1872) Cohn 1872: Correlation Between Peptidoglycan Type and Genetic Compatibility" (en ভাষাত). International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology খণ্ড 22 (4): 224–227. doi:10.1099/00207713-22-4-224. 
  20. ↑ Young, Michael; Artsatbanov, Vladislav; Beller, Harry R.; Chandra, Govind; Chater, Keith F.; Dover, Lynn G.; Goh, Ee-Been; Kahan, Tamar et al. (2010). "Genome Sequence of the Fleming Strain of Micrococcus luteus, a Simple Free-Living Actinobacterium" (en ভাষাত). Journal of Bacteriology খণ্ড 192 (3): 841–860. doi:10.1128/JB.01254-09. PMID 19948807. 
  21. ↑ Canada, Environment and Climate Change (23 February 2018). "Final Screening Assessment of Micrococcus luteus strain ATCC 4698". aem. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/evaluating-existing-substances/screening-assessment-micrococcus-luteus.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 October 2020. 
  22. ↑ Fleming, Alexander (1932). "Lysozyme" (en ভাষাত). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine খণ্ড 26 (2): 71–84. doi:10.1177/003591573202600201. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Fleming, A. (1945). "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945 -Penicillin: Nobel Lecture" (en-US ভাষাত). NobelPrize.org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/fleming/lecture/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 October 2020. 
  24. ↑ Gallo, Richard L. (2013). "The birth of innate immunity" (en ভাষাত). Experimental Dermatology খণ্ড 22 (8): 517. doi:10.1111/exd.12197. PMID 23879811. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/exd.12197. 
  25. ↑ Ragland, Stephanie A.; Criss, Alison K. (2017). "From bacterial killing to immune modulation: Recent insights into the functions of lysozyme" (en ভাষাত). PLOS Pathogens খণ্ড 13 (9): e1006512. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1006512. PMID 28934357. 
  26. ↑ Haven, Kendall F. (1994). Marvels of Science : 50 Fascinating 5-Minute Reads. প্ৰকাশক Littleton, Colo: Libraries Unlimited. পৃষ্ঠা. 182. ISBN 1-56308-159-8. 
  27. ↑ Bigger, Joseph W.; Boland, C. R.; O'meara, R. A. Q. (1927). "Variant colonies ofStaphylococcus aureus" (en ভাষাত). The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology খণ্ড 30 (2): 261–269. doi:10.1002/path.1700300204. 
  28. ↑ Brown, K. (2004). Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution. 320 pp. Sutton Publishing. আই.এচ.বি.এন. 0-7509-3152-3.
  29. ↑ Hare, R. The Birth of Penicillin, Allen & Unwin, London, 1970
  30. ↑ Houbraken, Jos; Frisvad, Jens C.; Samson, Robert A. (2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens" (en ভাষাত). IMA Fungus খণ্ড 2 (1): 87–95. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMID 22679592. 
  31. ↑ Hibbett, David S.; Taylor, John W. (2013). "Fungal systematics: is a new age of enlightenment at hand?" (en ভাষাত). Nature Reviews Microbiology খণ্ড 11 (2): 129–133. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2963. PMID 23288349. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2963. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Hare, R. (1982). "New light on the history of penicillin". Medical History খণ্ড 26 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1017/s0025727300040758. PMID 7047933. 
  33. ↑ "Obituary: C. J. La Touche" (en ভাষাত). Medical Mycology খণ্ড 19 (2): 164. 1981. doi:10.1080/00362178185380261. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature". British Journal of Biomedical Science খণ্ড 56 (2): 83–93. 1999. PMID 10695047. 
  35. ↑ Fleming, Alexander (1929). "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology খণ্ড 10 (3): 226–236. PMID 2048009. ; Reprinted as "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae". British Journal of Experimental Pathology খণ্ড 60 (1): 3–13. 1979. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Wainwright, Milton (1993). "The Mystery of the Plate: Fleming's Discovery and Contribution to the Early Development of Penicillin" (en ভাষাত). Journal of Medical Biography খণ্ড 1 (1): 59–65. doi:10.1177/096777209300100113. PMID 11639213. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096777209300100113. 
  37. ↑ "International Congress of Microbiology". British Medical Journal খণ্ড 2 (3944): 307–310. 1936. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.3943.253. 
  38. ↑ Dixon, Bernard (1986). "A Salute to the Pioneers of Microbiology" (en ভাষাত). Nature Biotechnology খণ্ড 4 (8): 681. doi:10.1038/nbt0886-681. 
  39. ↑ "ANNOTATIONS". British Medical Journal খণ্ড 2 (4208): 310–2. August 1941. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4208.310. PMID 20783842. 
  40. ↑ "Penicillin". British Medical Journal খণ্ড 2 (4210): 386. September 1941. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4210.386. 
  41. ↑ in October 1943 Abraham proposed a molecular structure which included a cyclic formation containing three carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom, the β-lactam ring, not then known in natural products. This structure was not immediately published due to the restrictions of wartime secrecy, and was initially strongly disputed, by Sir Robert Robinson among others, but it was finally confirmed in 1945 by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin using X-ray analysis." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; "Abraham, Sir Edward Penley"
  42. ↑ Lowe, Gordon (13 May 1999). "Obituary: Sir Edward Abraham". The Independent (London). https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-sir-edward-abraham-1093226.html. 
  43. ↑ Yanes, Javier (6 August 2018). "Fleming and the Difficult Beginnings of Penicillin: Myth and Reality" (en-US ভাষাত). OpenMind. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/bioscience/fleming-and-the-difficult-beginnings-of-penicillin-myth-and-reality/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 7 June 2020. 
  44. ↑ Moberg, C. (1991). "Penicillin's forgotten man: Norman Heatley" (en ভাষাত). Science খণ্ড 253 (5021): 734–735. doi:10.1126/science.1876832. PMID 1876832. 
  45. ↑ "Norman Heatley" (en ভাষাত). The Independent. 23 January 2004. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/norman-heatley-37866.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 7 June 2020. 
  46. ↑ Henry Harris, Howard Florey and the development of penicillin, a lecture given on 29 September 1998, at the Florey Centenary, 1898–1998, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford University (sound recording) [1]
  47. ↑ Conly, J.M.; Johnston, B.L. (2005). "Where are all the new antibiotics? The new antibiotic paradox" (en ভাষাত). Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology খণ্ড 16 (3): 159–160. doi:10.1155/2005/892058. PMID 18159536. 
  48. ↑ Wainwright, M.; Swan, H.T. (1987). "The Sheffield penicillin story" (en ভাষাত). Mycologist খণ্ড 1 (1): 28–30. doi:10.1016/S0269-915X(87)80022-8. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X87800228. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Wainwright, Milton (1990). "Besredka's "antivirus" in relation to Fleming's initial views on the nature of penicillin" (en ভাষাত). Medical History খণ্ড 34 (1): 79–85. doi:10.1017/S0025727300050286. PMID 2405221. 
  50. ↑ Wainwright, M (1987). "The history of the therapeutic use of crude penicillin.". Medical History খণ্ড 31 (1): 41–50. doi:10.1017/s0025727300046305. PMID 3543562. 
  51. ↑ "C.G. Paine and the earliest surviving clinical records of penicillin therapy". Medical History খণ্ড 30 (1): 42–56. January 1986. doi:10.1017/S0025727300045026. PMID 3511336. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Howie, J. (1986). "Penicillin: 1929–40". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.) খণ্ড 293 (6540): 158–159. doi:10.1136/bmj.293.6540.158. PMID 3089435. 
  53. ↑ Glover, J. (1986). "The MRC and informed consent". British Medical Journal খণ্ড 293 (6540): 157–158. doi:10.1136/bmj.293.6540.157. PMID 3089434. 
  54. ↑ Heaman, Elsbeth A. (2003). St Mary's: The History of a London Teaching Hospital. প্ৰকাশক Montreal, Que.: McGill-Queen's University Press. পৃষ্ঠা. 212. ISBN 978-0-7735-7086-3. OCLC 144085272. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/144085272. 
  55. ↑ Marko, Vladimir (2020). From Aspirin to Viagra: Stories of the Drugs that Changed the World. Springer. পৃষ্ঠা. 105–106. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44286-6_5. ISBN 978-3-030-44286-6. OCLC 1164582807. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1164582807. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Rossiter, Peter (2005). "Keith Bernard Rogers". BMJ খণ্ড 331 (7516): 579. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7516.579-c. 
  57. ↑ Maurois, André (1963) (en ভাষাত). The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming: Discoverer of Penicillin. Penguin Books. পৃষ্ঠা. 156. ISBN 1-199-30814-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=qOtWAAAAYAAJ&q=conjunctivitis+rogers+penicillin. 
  58. ↑ Aronson, J. K. (1992). "Penicillin" (en ভাষাত). European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology খণ্ড 42 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1007/BF00314911. PMID 1541305. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00314911. 
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  72. ↑ Baldry, Peter (1976) (en ভাষাত). The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look. CUP Archive. পৃষ্ঠা. 115. ISBN 978-0-521-21268-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=rvs8AAAAIAAJ. 
  73. ↑ Richards, A. N. (1964). "Production of penicillin in the United States (1941–1946)". Nature খণ্ড 201 (4918): 441–445. doi:10.1038/201441a0. PMID 14164615. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14164615. 
  74. ↑ Fishman, Neil; Infectious Diseases Society of America; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (April 2012). "Policy statement on antimicrobial stewardship by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), & the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS)". Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology খণ্ড 33 (4): 322–327. doi:10.1086/665010. PMID 22418625. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/48207C6BE27AB8C26F17672EF25F5808/S0195941700041175a.pdf/div-class-title-policy-statement-on-antimicrobial-stewardship-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-of-america-shea-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america-idsa-and-the-pediatric-infectious-diseases-society-pids-div.pdf. 
  75. ↑ Rosenblatt-Farrell, Noah (2009). "The Landscape of Antibiotic Resistance" (en ভাষাত). Environmental Health Perspectives খণ্ড 117 (6): 244–150. doi:10.1289/ehp.117-a244. PMID 19590668. 
  76. ↑ Rammelkamp, Charles H.; Maxon, Thelma (1942). "Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to the Action of Penicillin." (en ভাষাত). Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine খণ্ড 51 (3): 386–389. doi:10.3181/00379727-51-13986. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3181/00379727-51-13986. 
  77. ↑ Plough, Harold H. (1945). "Penicillin Resistance of Staphylococcus Aureus and its Clinical Implications" (en ভাষাত). American Journal of Clinical Pathology খণ্ড 15 (10): 446–451. doi:10.1093/ajcp/15.10.446. PMID 21005048. https://academic.oup.com/ajcp/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ajcp/15.10.446. 
  78. ↑ Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0-902198-84-X. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130124115814/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 9 May 2016. 
  79. ↑ Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution. The History Press. September 2005. ISBN 0-7509-3153-1. 
  80. ↑ সাঁচ:Cite patent
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  82. ↑ Roberts, Michael; Ingram, Neil (2001). Biology (2, illustrated সম্পাদনা). Nelson Thornes. পৃষ্ঠা. 105. ISBN 0-7487-6238-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=juiDySqWVYkC&pg=PT120। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 4 March 2012. "Penicillin is just one of a very large number of drugs which today are used by doctors to treat people with diseases." 
  83. ↑ "100,000 visitors in 6 days". National Museums Scotland. 3 August 2011. Archived from the original on 23 February 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120223192704/http://www.nms.ac.uk/about_us/about_us/press_office/press_releases/2011/100%2C000_visitors_in_6_days.aspx। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 4 March 2012. 
  84. ↑

    You must specify issue=, startpage=, and date= when using {{London Gazette}}. Available parameters: সাঁচ:London Gazette/doc/parameterlist

  85. ↑ "People of the century". P. 78. CBS News. Simon & Schuster, 1999
  86. ↑ Santesmases, María Jesús (18 December 2017). The Circulation of Penicillin in Spain: Health, Wealth and Authority. পৃষ্ঠা. 39. ISBN 978-3-319-69718-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=9ehDDwAAQBAJ&q=gran+cruz+alfonso+x+fleming&pg=PA41। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 7 July 2020. 
  87. ↑ "Alexander Fleming – Time 100 People of the Century". Time. 29 March 1999. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071016213052/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990612,00.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 12 June 2023. 
  88. ↑ "Discovery and Development of Penicillin". International Historic Chemical Landmarks. American Chemical Society. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 21 August 2018. 
  89. ↑ "BBC – Great Britons – Top 100". Internet Archive. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 19 July 2017. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Edward Lewine (2007). "Death and the Sun: A Matador's Season in the Heart of Spain". p. 123. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007
  91. ↑ "Banknote designs mark Homecoming". BBC News. 14 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7828554.stm. 
  92. ↑ "Robert Burns voted Greatest Scot". STV Group. 30 November 2009. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181106204321/https://stv.tv/news/scotland/141018-robert-burns-voted-greatest-scot/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 7 February 2016. 
  93. ↑ সাঁচ:LINZ
  94. ↑ Gaynes, Robert (2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin – New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use". Emerging Infectious Diseases খণ্ড 23 (5): 849–853. doi:10.3201/eid2305.161556. 
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Dufour, Héloïse D.; Carroll, Sean B. (2013). "History: Great myths die hard" (en ভাষাত). Nature খণ্ড 502 (7469): 32–33. doi:10.1038/502032a. PMID 24137644. 
  96. ↑ Ho, David (29 March 1999). "Bacteriologist Alexander Fleming" (en-US ভাষাত). Time. ISSN 0040-781X. http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990612,00.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 October 2020. 
  97. ↑ Selwyn, Sydney (1980). "Howard Florey: the making of a great scientist". Journal of Medical Microbiology খণ্ড 13 (3): 483. doi:10.1099/00222615-13-3-483. 
  98. ↑ e.g., The Philadelphia Inquirer, 17 July 1945: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 43 to Chapter 2
  99. ↑ 14 November 1945; British Library Additional Manuscripts 56115: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 44 to Chapter 2
  100. ↑ see Wikipedia Discovery of penicillin article entry for 1920
  101. ↑ A History of May & Baker 1834–1984, Alden Press 1984.

অতিৰিক্ত পঠন

সম্পাদনা কৰক
  • The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André.
  • Nobel Lectures, the Physiology or Medicine 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964
  • An Outline History of Medicine. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip.
  • The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed.
  • Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution, Stroud, Sutton, 2004. Brown, Kevin.
  • Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. Macfarlane, Gwyn
  • Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, Ludovici, Laurence J., 1952
  • The Penicillin Man: the Story of Sir Alexander Fleming, Lutterworth Press, 1957, Rowland, John.

বাহ্যিক সংযোগ

সম্পাদনা কৰক
ৱিকিউদ্ধৃতিত আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং বিষয় সংক্ৰান্তত উদ্ধৃতি আছে।
ৱিকিমিডিয়া কমন্সত Alexander Fleming সম্পৰ্কীয় মিডিয়া ফাইল আছে।
"https://as.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ_ফ্লেমিং&oldid=421904"ৰ পৰা অনা হৈছে